Questions to the offset on the discipline "Experimental Psychology"

1. The subject and tasks of experimental psychology

Under the experimental psychology understand

1. All scientific psychology as a knowledge system obtained on the basis of experimental study of human and animal behavior. (V. Wondt, S. Stevenson, etc.) Scientific psychology is equal to experimental and opposed to philosophical, introspective, speculative and humanitarian versions of psychology.

2. Experimental psychology is sometimes interpreted as a system of experimental methods and techniques implemented and specific studies. (M.V. Matlin).

3. Term " Experimental psychology"Used psychologists for characteristics scientific disciplineThe problem of methods psychological research generally.

4. Under experimental psychology, only the theory of the psychological experiment based on the general scientific theory of the experiment and primarily, including its planning and data processing. (F.J. McGigan).

Experimental psychology covers not only the study of common laws mental processes, but also individual variations of sensitivity, reaction time, memory, associations, etc.

The task of the experiment is not just in establishing or establishment of causal relations, but in explaining the origin of these connections. The subject of experimental psychology is a person. Depending on the purpose of the experiment, the features of the subject group (sex age, health, etc.) tasks can be creative, labor, gaming, training, etc.

Yu.M. Zakrodin believes that the basis of the experimental method is the procedure for the controlled change of reality in order to study it, allowing the researcher to enter the direct contact.

2. The history of the development of experimental psychology

Already in the XVII century were discussed different paths The formation of psychological knowledge and there were ideas about rational and empirical psychology. In the XIX century Psychological laboratories appeared and the first empirical studies were conducted, named experimental. In the first laboratory of experimental psychology V. Wunde used the method of experimental introspection ( introspection - self-surveillance of a person for his own mental activity). L. Ferehner developed the basics of building a psychophysical experiment, they were considered as methods for collecting data on the sensations of the subject when changing physical characteristics Stimulus presented to him. Ebbigauz conducted research on the patterns of memorization and forgetting, in which the techniques that have become experimentation standards are traced. A number of special techniques for obtaining psychological data, in particular the so-called association method, preceded the development of experimental impact schemes. Bihewic studies ( behaviorism - Direction in the psychology of the 20th century, ignoring the phenomena of consciousness, psyche and all-raising human behavior to the physiological reactions of the body on the impact of the external environment.), Perching primary attention to the problem of management of incentive factors, developed requirements for building a behavioral experiment.

Thus, experimental psychology was prepared widely unfolded in the middle of the XIX century to study elementary mental functions - sensations, perception, reaction time. These works led to the origin of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe possibility of creating experimental psychology as a special science other than physiology and philosophy. First Matcher Exp. Psychology is rightly called. Wundt, who founded the Institute of Psychology in Leipzig in 1879.

Founder American exp. Psychology is called S. Hall, which for 3 years studied in Leipzig in the laboratory V. Wyandt. He then became the first president of the American Psychological Association. From other researchers, James Kettela should be called, who also received a doctoral degree in V. Wundt (in 1886). He first introduced the concept of intelligent test.

In France, T. Ribo formulated an idea of \u200b\u200bthe subject of experimental psychology, which, in his opinion, should do not be engaged in metaphysics or discussion of the essence of the soul, but detecting laws and the nearest causes of mental phenomena.

In domestic psychology, one of the first examples of methodological work on the way of understanding the experimentation standards is the concept of a natural experiment A.F. Lazur, which he suggested in 1910. At the I-M All-Russian Congress on Experimental Pedagogy.

Since the 70s, the training course "Experimental Psychology" is read in Russian universities. In "state educational standard Higher vocational education"For 1995, he is given 200 hours. Tradition to the teaching of experimental psychology in russian universities introduced Professor G.I. Chelvan. Back in 1909/10, he read this course at seminary on psychology at Moscow University, and later - at the Moscow Psychological Institute (now - the Psychological Institute of RAO).

Chelpanov considered experimental psychology as educational discipline According to the method of psychological research, or rather, according to the method of experiment in psychology.

3. Methodology of experimental psychology

Science is a sphere of human activity, the result of which is a new knowledge of reality that corresponds to the criterion of truth. Practicality, utility, the effectiveness of scientific knowledge is considered derived from its truth. In addition, the term "science" refer to the entire totality of knowledge gained today by the scientific method. Result scientific activity There may be a description of reality, an explanation of the prediction of processes and phenomena, which are expressed in the form of text, structural scheme, graphic dependence, formula, etc. Ideal scientific search The discovery of laws is considered to be a theoretical explanation of reality. Science as a knowledge system (activity result) is characterized by completeness, reliability, systematic. Science as activities, first of all, characterized method . The method features science from other ways to obtain knowledge (revelation, intuition, faith, creating, everyday experience, etc.). The method is a set of techniques and operations of practical and theoretical development of reality. All methods modern science They are divided into theoretical and empirical. With the theoretical method of research, the scientist does not work with reality, but with a representation in the form of images, schemes, models in a natural language. The main work takes place in the mind. Empirical research is carried out to verify the correctness of theoretical constructions. The scientist works directly with the object, and not with its symbolic way.

In an empirical study, the scientist works with graphs, tables, but this happens "in the external action plan"; Schemes are drawn, calculations are made. IN theoretical Research A "mental experiment" is carried out when the object of the study is subjected to various tests based on logical reasoning. There is such a method as modeling. It uses the method of analogy, assumptions, conclusions. Modeling is used when there is no possibility to conduct an experimental study. There are "physical" and "iconic-symbolic" modeling. Experimentally examined the "physical model". In the study using the "iconic-symbolic" model, the object is implemented as a complex computer program.

Among scientific methods Allocate: observation, Experimental, Measurement .

In the XX century Throughout the life of one generation, scientific views on reality changed dramatically. Old theories were refuted by observation and experiment. So, any theory is a temporary structure, and can be destroyed. From here - the criterion of knowledge of knowledge: scientific recognizes such knowledge that can be rejected (recognized as false) in the process of empirical verification. Knowledge, for the refutation of which cannot be invented the appropriate procedure, cannot be scientific. Each theory is just an assumption and can be refuted by the experiment. Popper formulated the rule: "We do not know - we can only assume."

With different approaches to the allocation of methods of psychological research, the criterion remains the aspect of its organization, which allows to determine the methods of research attitude towards the reality studied. Then the techniques are treated as procedures or "techniques" of data collection, which can be included in different studies of research.

Methodology - knowledge system, defining principles, patterns and mechanisms for using psychological research methods. Expiration methodology. Psychology, like any other science, is based on certain principles:

· The principle of determinism is the manifestation of causal relations. In our case, the interaction of the psyche with the medium - the effect of external reasons is mediated by internal conditions, i.e. psyche.

· The principle of unity of physiological and mental.

· The principle of unity of consciousness and activity.

· Principle of development (principle of historicism, genetic principle).

· Principle of objectivity

· System-structural principle.

4. Psychological dimension

Measurement can be an independent research method, but can act as a component of the complete experimental procedure.

As an independent method, it serves to identify individual differences in the behavior of the subject and reflection of the impleasing world, as well as to study the adequacy of the reflection (the traditional task of psychophysics) and the structures of individual experience.

Lecture 1. The subject and objectives of experimental psychology.

Experimental psychology began to be actively shaped in the XIX century as a result of the need to bring psychology to the satisfaction of the basic requirements for science. It is believed that any science should have its own subject of research, its methodology and its thesaurus. The initial task of experimental psychology was the introduction of a scientific method into psychology. The founder of experimental psychology, a person who turned additional psychology into experimental, V. Wundt, a German psychologist and a physiologist who created the world's first scientific psychological school.
As experimental psychology has been developed, it has expanded its interests: starting with the development of the principles of a psychophysiological experiment, from the instructions for the correct formulation of a psychological experiment, it turned into a scientific discipline, which seeks to summarize knowledge of research methods for all directions of psychology (the experiment becomes only one of the available methods). Of course, experimental psychology is not engaged only by classification research methodsShe studies their effectiveness and develops them.
Experimental psychology is not a separate science, it is an area of \u200b\u200bpsychology, organizing knowledge about common problems for the majority of psychological areas of research and how to solve them. Experimental psychology answers the question - "How to make an experiment in psychology scientific?".
1) under experimental psychology (WEDDT and Stevenson) understand all scientific psychology as a system of knowledge obtained on the basis of experimental study of mental processes, personal properties and human behavior. It is opposed to philosophical issues and introspection (self-observation).
2) Experimental psychology is a system of experimental methods and techniques implemented in specific studies. As a rule, experimental psychology in the American school is interpreted.
3) The European School under experimental psychology understand only the theory of a psychological experiment based on the general scientific theory of the experiment.
Thus, experimental psychology is a scientific discipline engaged in the problem of psychological research in general.
Three main objectives of experimental psychology in a psychological study can be distinguished:
1. Development of adequate methods of examination corresponding to the subject of the study.
2. Development of the principles of the organization of experimental research: planning, conducting and interpretation.
3. Development of scientific methods of psychological measurements. The use of mathematical methods.

2. Basic methodological principles of psychological research
The methodology of experimental psychology is based on the following principles:
1. The principle of determinism. Its essence comes down to the fact that all mental phenomena are predetermined by the interaction of the body with external environment. Experimental psychology proceeds from the fact that human behavior and mental phenomena are a consequence of any reasons, that is, fundamentally explained. (Whatever happens, it has its own reasons). Without the causative links, it would be impossible.
2. The principle of objectivity. Experimental psychology believes that the object of knowledge is independent of the learning subject; The object is fundamentally learning through action. Independence of the knowledge of the subject from the subject is possible. Psychological methods allow us to objectively know reality. The goal is to maximize the minds. Methods of mathematical statistics allow you to make knowledge objective.
3. The principle of unity of physiological and mental. There is no hard gap between physiological and mental. The nervous system ensures the emergence and course of mental processes, but it is impossible to reduce mental phenomena to physiological processes. On the one hand, mental and physiological represent some unity, but this is not a identity.
4. The principle of unity of consciousness and activity. Suggests that it is impossible to separate the behavior, consciousness and identity; Everything is mutually intertwined. Leontyev: Consciousness is active, and the activity is conscious. An experimental psychologist is studying the behavior that is formed with the close interaction of the personality with the situation. It is expressed as follows: r \u003d f (p, s), where R is the behavior, P is a person, and S is a situation. In Russian psychology there is a division:
- the principle of the unity of personality and activity;
- The principle of unity of consciousness and personality.
5. Principle of development. Also known as the principle of historicism and the genetic principle. Development is the universal property of matter; The brain is also the result of long evolutionary development. According to this principle of the psyche of the subject - the result of long-term development in phylogenesis and ontogenesis. The principle emphasizes - any our functioning is infinite and depends on both the incentives of the external environment and the impact of social and historical factors.
6. System-structural principle. Any mental phenomena should be considered as holistic processes. (Impact is performed always on the psyche as a whole, and not on some isolated part of it.) The principle argues that all mental phenomena should be considered as included in the hierarchical staircase in which the lower floors are managed by the highest, and the highest includes the lower and rest on them. It is impossible to consider attention, temperament and ... regardless of everything else from each other.
7. The principle of falsifiability - the requirement of the methodological possibility of refuting the theory appropriate for the results of the methodological possibility of refuting the theory of the theory appropriate for the results of a fundamentally possible real experiment.

Lecture 2. Structure of experimental research

The structure of the experimental study consists of the following steps:
1. Setting the task or definition of the topic. Any study begins with the definition of the topic (it limits what we will explore). The study is carried out in three cases:
1- Check hypothesis about the existence of a phenomenon;
2- testing hypothesis about the existence of communication between phenomena;
3- checking the hypothesis about the causal dependence of the phenomenon A on the phenomenon V.
The primary formulation of the problem is to formulate the hypothesis. Psychological hypothesis, or experimental, - a hypothesis of mental phenomenon, the test tool of which is a psychological study.
Psychological hypothesis is often confused with statistical, which is put forward during the statistical analysis of the results of the experiment.
2. Stage of work with scientific literature - theoretical review. The initial base is created. The theoretical review is necessarily associated with the topic of research. (In the course work - the goal is to show how familiar with the literature on the chosen topic). Includes: search for baseline definitions, preparation of bibliography on the subject of research.
3. The stage of clarifying the hypothesis and determining variables. Determination of experimental hypothesis.
4. Choosing an experimental tool and experimental conditions (answers the question - "How to organize a study?"):
1- Allows you to manage an independent variable. An independent variable - in the scientific experiment, a variable that is intentionally manipulated or is selected by the experimenter in order to find out its effect on the dependent variable.
2- Allows you to register the dependent variable. Dependent variable - In the scientific experiment, the measured variable, the changes of which bind to the changes in the independent variable.
5. Experimental research planning:
1- Allocation of additional variables.
2- Selection of an experimental plan.
Experimental planning is one of the most important stages of the organization of a psychological study on which the researcher is trying to construct the most optimal model to implement in practice (that is, the plan) of the experiment.
6. Formation of sampling and distribution of groups of groups in accordance with the accepted plan.
7. Experiment
1- Preparation of the experiment
2- Instructing and motivation of subjects
3- actually experimentation
8. Statistical processing
1- Selection of statistical processing methods
2- transformation of experimental hypothesis in statistical hypothesis
3- Conducting statistical processing
9. Interpretation of the results and conclusions
10. Fixation of research in scientific report, article, monograph, letter to editor scientific journal.

Lecture 3.Shological research hypothesis

Psychological hypothesis, or experimental, is a hypothesis of mental phenomenon, the test tool of which is a psychological study.
Three types of hypothesis can be distinguished by its origin:
1. It is based on the theory or models of reality and represents the forecasts of the consequences of these theories or models (we check the possible consequence of theory).
2. Experimental hypotheses extended to confirm or refute theories or previously detected patterns, but they are not based on existing theories (search for contradictions, exceptions).
3. Empirical hypotheses that are put forward irrelevant any theory or model, that is, are formulated for this case. After checking, such a hypothesis turns into a fact (again only for a given case); Her goal to try to understand the general uniform reasons for this phenomenon; This is a scientific research on fact. Simple transfer to another case is not possible; In another case, these patterns do not exist.
Gottsdanger, in addition to the previous one, allocates several species of experimental hypotheses:
1. Counterbipothesis (in statistics - zero hypothesis) - an alternative hypothesis that denies a common hypothesis.
2. Third competing experimental hypothesis (not quite something, and not quite different).
G1 - they are prone to depression.
G0 - they are not prone to depression.
G2 - among children suffering from stuttering, there are children who do not suffer from depression.
If the overall hypothesis was partially confirmed, then it is necessary to test the third hypothesis.
Several types of hypotheses are distinguished:
1. Experimental hypothesis at the maximum or minimum value, which is verified only with a multi-level experiment.
2. Experimental hypothesis about absolute or proportional relations is an accurate assumption about the nature of the quantitative change in the dependent variable with a gradual quantitative change in independent. Hypothesis relationship.
3. Combined experimental hypothesis is an assumption about the attitude between a certain combination of two or more independent variables on one side and the dependent variable on the other side, which is verified only in a factor experiment.
1- from child readiness factors to school - intellectual readiness;
2- personal or social readiness;
3- emotional-volitional readiness.
These factors are causes of academic performance (when one of the factors falls out.

Statistical research hypothesis
The hypothesis is a scientific assumption that flows out of the theory that has not yet been confirmed and is not refuted. As a rule, the hypothesis speaks on the basis of a number of confirming its observations (examples), and therefore it looks plausible. The hypothesis subsequently or proved, turning it into the established fact (theorem), or refute (for example, pointing to the counterexample), translating false statements into the category.
The hypothesis is the basis for the organization of the experiment. Experimental hypothesis - primary, but in addition to the experiment, statistical research hypothesis is distinguished. Any psychological hypothesis has a statistical design, it is impossible to build hypotheses that cannot be written in the language of mathematical statistics.
Statistical hypothesis - approval with respect to an unknown parameter formulated in the language of mathematical statistics; It is advanced during the statistical analysis of the results of the experiment. Statistical is called a hypothesis about the form of an unknown distribution or the parameters of known distributions.
Statisticals are called the hypotheses of the following types:
1. On the form of the distribution of the studied value;
2. On the distribution parameters, the type of which is known;
3. On equality or inequality of parameters of two or several distributions;
4. On the dependence or independence of two or several distributions.
So: With the help of statistical hypotheses, we confirm or refute experimental hypotheses, which, in turn, confirm or refute our heuristics. Statistical hypothesis is mathematical formalization of intuitive insight. After statistical hypotheses are formulated, data analysis is analyzed.
Distinguish hypotheses: zero and alternative.
The hypothesis arguing that there is no distinction between compared characteristics, and the observed deviations are explained only by random fluctuations in samples, on the basis of which a comparison is made, called zero (main) hypothesis and denoted H0. Along with the main hypothesis, an alternative (competing, contradictory) hypothesis H1 is also considered. And if the zero hypothesis will be rejected, there will be an alternative hypothesis.
Alternative hypothesis is an assumption taken in case of deviation of zero hypothesis. An alternative hypothesis approves a positive relationship between the variables studied.
Zero hypothesis - the assumption of the absence of interconnection or correlation between the studied variables. Distinguish simple and complex hypotheses. The hypothesis is called simple if it definitely characterizes the distribution parameter of a random variable. Complicated is called a hypothesis, which consists of a finite or infinite set of simple hypotheses.

Lecture 4. Start: Physiological Psychology

In the middle of the XIX century. Scottish Marshall Hall (1790-857) who worked in London (1790-857) and Professor of the French College in Paris Pierre Flowrans (1794-1867), exploring the brain functions, widely used the method of extirpation (removal), when the function of a certain part of the brain is established by removing or destruction of this Parts followed by observation of changes in the behavior of the animal. In 1861, the French Surgeon Paul Brock (18241880) proposed a clinical method: the deceased brain revealed and the place of damage is considered, which is considered responsible for the abnormal behavior during the patient's life. So Brock opened the "Speech Center" of the Loban Cross Crane Crash, which turned out to be damaged from a man, there is clearly talking during his lifetime. In 1870, Gustav Fritus and Edward Hitzing for the first time applied the method of electrostimulation of the cerebral cortex (they carried out experiments with rabbits and dogs).

The development of experimental physiology led to two important circumstances that had a decisive effect on the anthropological science of the time:

1. The actual material relating to various sides of the life of organisms has increased rapidly; The data obtained in the experiments could not be installed even in the most inaccessible speculative;
2. Many vital processes, previously formerly the monopoly subject of religious and philosophical reflections, received new, mainly mechanistic explanations that have staged these processes in one row with the natural course of things.

The physiology of the nervous system gradually dispanned the physiology of the nervous system by new knowledge, the physiology of the nervous system gradually dispanned the philosophy. German physiologist and physiologist Herman Helmgolts (1821-1894) from measurements of the velocity nerve impulses It switched to research and hearing research, already becoming one foot in the same unknown area, which later will receive the name of the psychology of perception. His theory of color perception, still mentioned in all textbooks of psychology, affected not only the peripheral aspects that were under the management of the physiology of the senses, but also many centrally caused phenomena that have not yet managed to control experimentally and fully (recall, for example, the role past experience in his concept unconscious conclusions). The same can be said by his resonant theory of hearing perception.

IN scientific biography Helmholts is interesting one fact. In his experimental practice, measurements played a huge role. Initially, he measured the speed of nerve pulses on the Isole preparation. Then he moved to the measurement of the response time of a person. Here he encountered a large data scatter not only different, but even the same subject.Such behavior of the measured value did not fit into a strict deterministic scheme of thinking of physiologist physiologist, and it refused to study the reaction time, considering this capricious measure of Major-True. The brilliant experimenter was captured by his mentality.

In the history of science, this is common. If many, many, then, perhaps, were engaged in vision and hearing Ernst Weber (1795-1878) - a German physiologist, whose main scientific interest was bound by the physiology of the senses, focused on the study of the skin kinesthetic sensitivity. His experiments with tangible confirmed the presence of a threshold of sensations, in particular, the two-point threshold. Variating the place of skin irritation, he showed that the magnitude of this threshold is not the same, and explained this difference, and did not drop it as an inacproy. The thing is that, being a real experimentator, Weber not only measured the thresholds, receiving, as we say now, the Yervic data, but mathematically processed them, receiving secondary data that is not contained in the measurement procedure itself. This is especially clearly visible on the example of its experiments with a kinesthetic sensitivity (comparing the weight of two small cargoes - standard alternating). It turned out, then a hardly sensible difference between the weights of two cargoes is not the same for different standards. The experimenter could see this difference in primary measurements. But Weber did not stop at this. It is necessary to work with numbers to work out, not only with stimuli-test, forced him to take another step: he took the attitude of the barely noticeable difference (that is, the difference between the weights of the two loads) of the standard cargo. And his greatest surprise this attitude was constant for different standards! This discovery (later it became known as the Weber law) could not be made apriory, and it did not contain directly experimental procedure or in the measurement results. This is a creative luck that sometimes comprehends thinking experimenters. Thanks to Weber's work, not only the measurability of sensations in humans is apparent, but also the existence of strict laws in aware of sensory experience.

When Weber at his 22nd years lectured on physiology at the medical faculty of the University of Lects, the future founder of psychophysics Gustav Fehner did there. It was 1817. The idea of \u200b\u200bpsychophysics studies the laws of communication between mental and physical phenomena was born at Fehner in 1850. Fehner was in kind of humanitarian and was in opposition to materialistic views that dominated the University of Leipzig and the hottest advantaged by the same Weber. At the same time, he operated very high categories, stating that the universe has two sides: not only "shadow", material, but also "light", spiritual (Schulz DP, Schulz S.E., 1998, p.79 ). This orientation on the universe and was, an obeyable, source of his scientific inspiration.

In the late 1930s, he became interested in the problem of sensations. And then the misfortune happened to him: studying the visual posts, he looked at the sun through the colored glasses and damaged his eyes. After that, he was in severe depression for several years and turned to the philosophical mysticism, especially the problem of the relationship between physical and mental. His exit from the state of depression was very mysterious and even mystical: "Once he saw a dream from which the number77 clearly remembered. From this he concluded that his recovery would take 77 days. So it happened. " (Ibid, p.80). Moreover, his depression switched to Euphoria. It is at this time that it comes to the above-mentioned insight. Weber lectures on the physiology of the senses, physical and mathematical education, the stunned philosophical knowledge were integrated into a simple, but a brilliant idea formulated later as the main psychophysical law.

Fechner axiomatics:

1. We cannot be measured directly; The intensity of sensation is indirectly measured by the value of the stimulus.

1. With the threshold magnitude of the stimulus (R) the intensity of the sensation (S) is 0.
2. The magnitude of the outgoing stimulus (R) is measured by the threshold units, that is, the value of the stimulus at an absolute threshold (R).
3. Already noticeable change in the feeling ( Δs.) It is a permanent value and therefore can serve as a unit of measurement of any intensity of sensation.

Now it remains to determine the relationship between the measure of measurement of the sensation ( Δs.) and the threshold unit of measurement of the incentive. Fehner solved this problem purely mathematical means. Let's follow the logic of his reasoning.

We have two constants: ( Δs.) (Axiom 4) and Webero attitude Δ R / R. (Fehner himself wrote that, holding his experiments, he had not yet knew about the work of Weber. There remains a historic mystery: or whether Fechner Lucinal, or in fact he acted independently. In science, as everyday life, meets, and the other) . One constant can be expressed in another:

Δs. \u003d C ( Δ R: R) (1)

This is the so-called basic Fuchner formula. When measuring the threshold Δ R I. Δs. - Infinitely small values, that is, differentials:

After integration we get:

∫DS \u003d C ∫ DR: R, or S \u003d C LNR + C (2)

Here are constant with and from unknown. If s \u003d 0 at r \u003d r (where R is a threshold value), the expression (2) will be recorded as follows:

Such a C \u003d -CLNR; We substitute it in (2) we get:

S \u003d C LNR -C LNR \u003d C (LNR - 1NR) \u003d C LNR (R: R).

Go to K. decimal logarithmam: S \u003d k LG (R: R) (3)

We accept R per unit of measure, that is, R \u003d 1; then:

S \u003d k LG R (4)

That's what it is the main psychophysical law of Fehner. Please note that the conclusion of the law is carried out by means of mathematics, and there may not arise any doubts.

In the Ferechner law, the unit of measurement is the threshold value of the stimulus R. From here it is clear why Fehner pay great attention to how to define the threshold. He developed several psychophysical methods that were classic: the boundaries method, the constant incentive method and the formation method. With them you met in practical classes, and now we can take a look at these methods on the other hand.

First, this methods are purely laboratory: here and artificial incentives, little similar to everyday weak skin touch with two needles, barely visible light spot, slightly audible insulated sound); and the remaining unusual conditions (limit concentration on their sensations, monotonous repetition of the same actions, complete darkness or silence); and annoying monotony. If this happens in life, it is very rare, and even then in an extreme situation (for example, in a single prison chamber). And all this is necessary for the purity of the experiment, to minimize or completely eliminate the impact on the subjects of the factors that are not related to the experiment procedure. The artificiality of the experimental situation is the constant attribute of any scientific experiment. But it gives rise to a not very pleasant problem of the applicability of laboratory data with real, nonlaboratory situations. natural Sciencesah, this problem is far from so dramatic as experimental psychology. We will return to her a little later.

Secondly, the specific, or instant magnitude of the threshold by itself, is not interesting and is hardly informative. Usually the threshold is measured for something. For example, in its magnitude, we can judge the sensitivity of a person to these influences: the lower the threshold, the higher the sensitivity; comparing thresholds obtained different time The same subject, we can judge their dynamics in time or dependency on certain conditions; Comparing the thresholds of different subjects, it is possible to estimate the range of individual differences in sensitivity for this modality, etc. In other words, the context in which the laboratory method is applied is significantly expanding its semantic volume, which means its pragmatic value. It is this contextual factor that made fechner methods with a powerful tool for solving others, already nephochner problems not only psychophysics, but general psychology.

Lecture 5. Wheel of experimental psychology

At the origins of experimental psychoocology stood another outstanding German scientist - Wilhelm Wondt (1832-1920). He was also born in the pastor family, got medical education, knew anatomy, physiology, physics and chemistry. From 1857 to 1864 he worked as a laboratory assistant at Helmholtz (it was already mentioned). Wündt had its own home laboratory. Doing at this time physiology, he comes to the thought of psychology as an independent science. He justifies this idea in his book "On the theory of sensual perception", which has been published with small portions from 1858 to 1862. It is here for the first time the experimental psychology introduced by him.

The beginning of the emergence of experimental psychology is conditionally considered to be 1878. Since it was during this period V.Undt founded in Germany the first laboratory of experimental psychology. The prospects for building psychology as a whole science, assumed the development of two non-cycle directions in it: naturally scientific, based on experiment, and cultural and historical, in which the main role is called to play psychological methods Studies of culture ("psychology of peoples"). According to his theory, naturally scientific experimental methods could be used only to the elementary, lower level of the psyche. The experimental study is not the soul itself, but only its external manifestations. Therefore, in its laboratory, there were mainly sensations and the engineering acts caused by them, as well as peripheral and binocular vision, color, etc. (psychodiagnostics. A.S. Luchinin, 2004).

Theoretical basis science.

The psychology of the WendTa was based on the experimental methods of natural sciences - primarily physiology.

The subject of the study was consciousness. The basis of conceptual views performed empiricism and associanism.

Vunde considered that consciousness is the essence of the psyche - the phenomenon is complex and composite, and the method of analysis or reductionism is best suited for studying it. He pointed out that the first step in the study of a phenomenon should be a complete description of the composite elements.

He focused on the brain's ability to self-organization, this WUNDT system called voluntaryism (volitional act, want) - the concept according to which the mind has the ability to organize the process of thinking, translating it to qualitatively more high level.

Vundt attached great importance The ability of reason to the active high-level synthesis of its component elements.

Psychology should first of all direct experience - which is cleared of all kinds of interpretations and the guardian knowledge ("My teeth hurt").

This experience is cleared of indirect experience that gives us knowledge, and is not a constituent direct experience (we know that the forest is green, the sea is blue, the sky is blue).

The main method of new science was introspection. Since the psychology of science on the experience of consciousness, it means that the method should consist of observation over its own consciousness.

Experiments on introspection, or internal perception, conducted in the Leipzig Laboratory on Strict Rules:

• accurate definition of the beginning (moment) of the experiment;
• observers should not reduce their level of attention;
• the experiment must be checking several times;
• the conditions for the experiment must be acceptable to change and control from the change in irritation factors.

Introspective analysis was not associated with high-quality introspection (when the subject described his internal experience), and with direct representations of the test on the value, intensity, the range of the physical stimulus, the reaction time, etc. Thus, the conclusions about the elements and processes of consciousness were made from Objective estimates.

Elements of the experience of consciousness

WUNDT identified the following main tasks of experimental psychology:

• analyze the processes of consciousness through the study of its main elements;
• Find out how these elements are connected;
• Install the principles according to which such a connection occurs.

Wundt believed that the sensations are the primary form of experience. Feelings arise when any stimulus and emerging impulses reach the brain on the senses. The limitations of this position is that he did not distinguish between sensations and mental images arising on their basis.

Feelings - another form of primary experience. Feelings and feelings arise simultaneously in the process of one and the same direct experience. Moreover, feelings are directly followed by sensations:

Irritant feeling feeling

In the process of conducting sessions of Samoenalysis, Wondt has developed a three-dimensional sense model (experiment with metronome).

The three-dimensional model of feelings is built in the system of three dimensions:

1) "Pleasure - discomfort" (when rhythm metronome blows are very frequent);

2) "Voltage - relaxation" (very rare blows, when you expect a blow, and relaxation, coming after it);

3) "Lifting (feelings) - fading" (a frequent pace of shocks is slow).

Consequently, any feeling is located in a certain range. three-dimensional space.

Emotions are a complex compound of elementary feelings that can be measured using a three-dimensional continuum. Thus, WEDDT has reduced emotions to thinking elements, but this theory of testing time could not stand it.

Based on the laboratory and magazine, WEDDT, along with experimental studies, appeals to philosophy, logic, aesthetics.

He believed that the simplest mental processes - sensations, perception, feelings, emotions - must be studied with the help of laboratory research. And for higher mental processes - learning, memory, language that are associated with aspects ...

The term "experimental psychology" has at least four meanings.

1) under experimental psychology understand (following V. Wyandt, S. Stevens and other scientists) all scientific psychology as a knowledge system obtained on the basis of experimental study Human behavior and animals. Scientific psychology is equal to the experimental and opposed philosophical, introspective, speculative and humanitarian psychology. This point of view is reflected in the "experimental psychology" edited by P. Fress and J. Piaget (Experimental Psychology, 1966).

2) experimental psychology sometimes interpret as the system of experimental methods and methods implemented in specific studies. A typical textbook who offers students such an understanding of experimental psychology is "Experimental human psychology" M. V. Matlin.

3) The term "experimental psychology" is often used in the expansion value for the characteristics scientific discipline engaged in the problem of psychological research methods generally.

4) Finally, under experimental psychology, only understand Theory of psychological experiment, based on the general scientific theory of the experiment and, first of all, includes its planning and processing of data by the classical textbook of this kind, "Experimental Psychology" F. J. Mac-Gigan

The science - This is the sphere of human activity, the result of which is a new knowledge of reality that corresponds to the criterion of truth. Practicality, utility, the effectiveness of scientific knowledge is considered derived from its truth. The term "science" refer to the entire totality of knowledge obtained today by the scientific method

The result of scientific activity may be description of reality, explanation of prediction of processes and phenomenawhich are expressed in the form of text, structural scheme, graphical dependence, formula, etc. The ideal scientific search is considered opening of laws- Theoretical explanation of reality.

All types of scientific results can be conventionally organized on the "Empirical - theoretical knowledge" scale: unit fact, empirical generalization, model, pattern, law, theory.

Science as a knowledge system and as a result of human activity is characterized full, reliability, systematic.Science as human activity is primarily characterized method.

Scientific method - A combination of techniques and operations of practical and theoretical development of reality.

Paradigm - This is a generally recognized standard, an example scientific research, including the law, theory, their practical application, method, equipment, etc. This is the rules and standards of scientific activities adopted in the scientific community to date, until another scientific revolution, which breaks the old paradigm, replacing it with a new one. The existence of the paradigm is a sign of the maturity of science or a separate scientific discipline.

Any theory is a temporary structure and can be destroyed.From here - the criterion for knowledge of knowledge: scientific recognizes such knowledge that can be refuted (recognized as false) in the process of empirical inspection. Knowledge, for the refutation of which cannot be invented the appropriate procedure, cannot be scientific.

Each theory is just an assumption and can be refuted by the experiment. K. Popper formulated the rule: "We do not know - we can only assume."

From the standpoint of critical rationalism (so characterized their worldview popper and its followers) the experiment is a method of refuting plausible hypotheses.

The principle of potential disprovership of the scientific theory of Popper called the principle of falsifiability.

The normative process of scientific research is based as follows:
1. Advance of the hypothesis (hypotheses).
2. Research planning.
3. Research.
4. Data interpretation.
5. Refutation or irrefuting of the hypothesis (hypotheses).
6. In case of refutation of the old - the formulation of a new hypothesis (hypotheses).

Paradigm modern natural science I became the basis of the psychological method.

The goal of science is the comprehension of truth, and the method of comprehending the truth is a scientific study.

The study is based on the scientific method. His implementation implies awareness and fixation of the purpose of the study, research facilities (methodology, approaches, methods, methods), the orientation of the study on the reproducibility of the result.

Scientific research happens:

Theoretical
Empirical
Empirical theoretical

Research on their nature can be divided into

fundamental (directed to the knowledge of reality without taking into account the practical effect on the use of knowledge)
and applied(It is carried out in order to obtain knowledge to be used to solve a specific practical task)

monodisciplinary (held within a separate science) and interdisciplinary (held at the junction of several scientific disciplines)

analytical/ single-factor (aimed at identifying one, most significant, according to the researcher, aspect of reality) and complex (carried out using a system of methods and techniques through which scientists seek to cover the maximum possible number of significant parameters of the studied reality).

For the purpose of the study:

Search (It means an attempt to solve the problem that no one put or did not solve this method. Sometimes similar studies refer to the research "Tyk Method": "Let's try it, maybe something will succeed." The scientific works of this kind are aimed at obtaining fundamentally new results in low-investigated area).

Critical (held in order to refute the existing theory, models, hypothesis, law, etc. or to verify which of the two alternative hypothesis more precisely predicts reality. Critical studies held in those areas where a rich theoretical and empirical stock of knowledge has been accumulated and there are tested techniques for the implementation of the experiment).

Clarifying (Their goal is to establish boundaries, within which the theory predicts facts and empirical patterns. Usually, compared with the initial experimental sample, the conditions for conducting the study, the object, the technique, are subject to what theoretical knowledge obtained to theoretical knowledge is applied to which reality.

Reproducing (Its purpose is the exact repetition of the experiment of precursors to determine the reliability, reliability and objectivity of the results obtained. The results of any research should be repeated during a similar experiment conducted by another scientist who has relevant competence. Therefore, after opening a new effect, patterns, creating a new technique and T . Then an avalanche of reproducing studies arises, designed to check the results of the discoverers. The reproducing study is the basis of the whole science).

Stages of scientific research

1. Problem Statement: What is unknown?
At the next stage, the scientist analyzes the available information on the problem under study. It may be that this problem has already been solved or there are similar studies that have not led to the final result. If the scientist doubts the results obtained earlier, it reproduces the study on the methodology proposed by its predecessors, then analyzes the methods and techniques that they have been used to solve this or similar tasks. The most creative moment of research is the invention of the original technique.

2. The wording of assumptions is hypotheses.For their verification, a plan of scientific research is being built. It includes the choice of an object - a group of people with whom the experiment will be conducted or followed by observation. Refine the subject of research is part of reality that will be studied. The place and time of studies is selected and the procedure for experimental samples is determined to reduce the effect of interference on the result of the experiment.

3. Research on the planned plan. During the actual experiment, deviations always arise from the plan, which must be taken into account when interpreting the results and re-conducting experience.

4. Primary data analysis, their mathematical processing, interpretation and generalization. Source hypotheses are checked for accuracy. New facts or patterns are formulated. Theories are specified or discarded as unsuitable.

5. Formulation of conclusions

The scientific result obtained by the researcher ideally should not depend on time.The researcher must be convinced that the pattern found by it is valid for the mental process (for example, thought), which occurs in a person living in London, and for a resident of Moscow. Scientific knowledge intersubjectively. The scientific result should not depend on the personality of the researcher, its motives, intentions, intuition, etc.

Validity

Conformity real research Ideal - internal validity.
Compliance of the real study of the lectured objective reality - external validity.
Attitude perfect research to reality - theoretical, or prognostic validity,since the plan of "ideal research" is based on the theoretical idealization of reality - the hypotheses of the study.

Theory - Higher form of scientific knowledge

The experiment is placed in order to test theoretical predictions. The theory is an internally consistent knowledge system about a part of reality. (subject to theory).

Forms of theoretical knowledge - laws, classification and typology, models, schemes, hypothesis.

The theory acts as the highest form of scientific knowledge. Each theory includes the following main components:
1) the initial empirical basis (facts, empirical patterns);
2) basis - a plurality of primary conditional assumptions (axioms, postulates, hypotheses), which describe an idealized object of the theory;
3) the theory logic is a set of logical output rules that are permissible within the framework of the theory;
4) A variety of allegations derived in theory, which constitute the main theoretical knowledge.

According to the construction method distinguish
axiomatic (are built on the system of axioms, necessary and sufficient, unoccupied within the framework of theory) and
hypothetical deductive theories(are built on assumptions having an empirical, inductive basis).

Distinguish theories:
qualitybuilt without attracting a mathematical apparatus. This is the concept of motivation A. Oil, the theory of cognitive dissonance L. Festinger, the ecological concept of perception of J. Gibson, etc.;

formalized- The mathematical apparatus is used in their structure, is the theory of cognitive balance D. Homans, the theory of intelligence J. Piaget, the theory of Motivation K. Levin, the theory of personal constructs J. Kelly.;

formal -for example, the Stochastic Test Theory D. Rasha (IRT - the theory of the selection of the item), widely used in the scaling of the results of psychological and pedagogical testing. "The model of a subject with free Will" V. A. Lefevra (with certain reservations) can be attributed to highly formalized theories.

The empirical base and the predictive power of the theory are distinguished. The theory is created not only in order to describe reality, the value of the theory is which phenomena of reality it can predict And to what extent this forecast will be accurate.

Scientific problem

Setting the problem - the beginning of any research. It does not need a study only evidence. However, the evidence is subjective.

In constant conditions to which a person adapts, the world is fragile for him. Problems are generated by the variability of the world and the spiritual activity of people.

The formulation of the problem entails the wording of the hypothesis.

In science, the formulation of the problem is the detection of "deficit", lack of information for the description or explanation of reality.

Stages of finding a problem :

identification of shortage in scientific knowledge of reality;
description of the problem at the level of an ordinary language;
formulation of the problem in terms of scientific discipline.

Already formulating the problem, we narrow the search range of it possible solutions And in an implicit form, we put forward the research hypothesis. The problem is a rhetorical question that researcher sets nature, but he should answer him himself. We also give the philosophical interpretation of the concept of "problem". "Problem" - an objectively arising in the course of the development of knowledge of knowledge or a set of issues, the solution of which represents a significant practical or theoretical interest "[Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1989].

The problems are divided into real problems and "pseudoproblos" that seem significant. In addition, a class of unsolvable problems is allocated (the transformation of mercury into gold, the creation of a "eternal engine", etc.) Proof of non-helping problems in itself is one of the options for its solution.

Hypothesis

The hypothesis is a scientific assumption that flows out of the theory that has not yet been confirmed and is not refuted.

In the methodology of science distinguish theoretical hypothesis and hypotheses as empirical assumptionsthat are subject to experimental verification. The first are included in the structure of theories as the main parts. Theoretical hypotheses are put forward to eliminate the internal contradictions in theory or to overcome the mismatch of theory and experimental results and are a tool for improving theoretical knowledge.

The second type of hypotheses - assumptions put forward to solve the problem by the method of experimental research. These are experimental hypotheses that do not have to be based on theory. More precisely, it is possible to allocate at least three types of hypotheses by their origin.

The hypothesis of the first type is based on the theory or models of reality and are predictions, the consequences of these theories or models (the so-called theoretically substantiated hypotheses). They serve to verify the consequences of a specific theory or model.
The second type is scientific experimental hypotheses, also put forward for confirmation or refutation of certain theories, laws, previously detected patterns or causing connections between phenomena, but not based on existing theories, and formulated on the principle of Fairband: "Everything is suitable." Their justification is in the intuition of the researcher: "Why not?"
Third type - empirical hypotheses that are put forward without reference to any theory, models, that is, are formulated for this case. A classic version of such a hypothesis is the aphorism of Kozma Prutkov: "Click bull into the nose, he will wave a tail."

In terms of hypotheses, they can be divided into hypotheses about availability:
A) phenomena; (Attempt to establish the truth: "Is there a boy?" All these are hypotheses about the facts).
B) links between phenomena; (Such assumptions include, for example, a hypothesis about the dependence between the intelligence of children and their parents. These hypotheses are checked during the measuring study, which is more often called the correlation examination. Their result is to establish a linear or nonlinear communication between processes or the lack of any).
C) causal relationships between phenomena. (The experimental hypothesis includes an independent variable dependent variable, relations between them and the levels of additional variables).

Researchers distinguish scientific and statistical hypotheses. Scientific hypotheses are formulated as an intended solution to the problem. Statistical hypothesis - approval regarding an unknown parameter formulated in the language of mathematical statistics. Any scientific hypothesis requires translation into statistics language. During the organization of the experiment, the amount of hypotheses is limited to two: the main and alternative, which is embodied in the procedure of statistical interpretation of data. This procedure is reduced to the assessment of similarities and differences. When checking statistical guises, only two concepts are used: H1 (hypothesis of difference) and H0 (similarity hypothesis).

An experimental hypothesis is used to organize an experiment, and statistical - to organize a comparison procedure for registered parameters.

The theory in the experiment cannot be checked directly. Theoretical statements are universal; Of these, private consequences are derived, which are called hypotheses. They must be meaningful, operational (potentially refuted) and formulated in the form of two alternatives. The theory is refuted if private consequents derived from it are not confirmed in the experiment.

The hypothesis may turn, but can never be finally accepted. Any hypothesis is open for subsequent check.

Research methods

-Toretical. The scientist is not dealing with the reality itself, but with its mental representation, theoretical work Performed "in the mind."
-Imprication. It is carried out to verify the correctness of theoretical constructions; Scientist interacts with the object itself

-Nallement - a focused, organized and certainly fixed perception of the object under study. The results of fixing the observation data are called a description of the behavior of the object. . Astronomy is classical observational science.

Observation can be carried out directly or using technical means and data logging methods (photo, audio and video equipment, observation cards, etc.). Observation is applied when either it is impossible, or to interfere in the natural course of the process.

The main features of the method of observation are:
- the immediate connection of the observer and the observed object;
- primacy (emotional painting) observation;
- Difficulty (sometimes - the inability) of re-observation.

Experiment- studies in specially created, managed conditions in order to test the experimental hypothesis and causal relationships. It allows you to reproduce the phenomena of reality in specially created conditions and thereby detect causal dependencies between the phenomenon and the peculiarities of external conditions.

Measure - Empirical method for identifying properties or objects of an object by organizing the interaction of an object with a measuring device, which changes in states depend on the state of the object.From a methodological point of view, the measurement is to register the state of the object based on the registration of changes in the state of another object (device).

The psychological measurement is considered to be an estimate of the magnitude of certain parameters of reality or assessing similarities and differences in the reality objects that the subject produces. Based on these estimates, the researcher measures the peculiarities of the subjective reality of the subject.

When measuring, it is impossible to identify causal dependencies, but you can establish links between the levels of different parameters of objects.

Observation is the immediate, "passive" study method.
Measurement is "passive", but mediated method.
Experiment - "Active", but also mediated method for studying reality.
Theoretically, the fourth type of empirical study is also possible: immediate and "active", in which the researcher without registration and impact devices interacts with the object, actively changing its condition. Such a method is possible, probably only in psychology, and it is called a conversation, and wider - the communicative method.

- Modeling. The model is an analogue of the object. Modeling is used when it is impossible to conduct an experimental study of the object. Such objects include unique systems that are inaccessible to experimental study, or the system on which the experiment is impossible to produce moral considerations: the universe, the solar system.

Physical modeling - Experimental is investigated
Symbolic modeling - implemented in the form of a more or less complex computer program

Interpretation

The teaching manual contains working program, thematic plan and course of lectures on the discipline "Experimental Psychology", specialty 01 "Psychology". The manual sets out the methodological foundations of psychological research and experiment, given the characteristics of the preparation and experiment steps, covered the processing and interpretation of the data obtained. Tutorial Designed for students and graduate students.

The history of the development of experimental psychology. The role of the experimental method in psychological research

Plan lectures

1. Historical contexts of the development of psychological knowledge.

2. Experimental method in psychology. Wilhelm Wondt.

3. Experimental study of higher mental functions. Herman Ebbigauz.

4. Structural direction of experimental psychology and functionalism.

5. Applied aspects of experimental psychology.

6. Experimental psychological studies in Russian psychology.

1. Historical contexts of the development of psychological knowledge. Psychology is one of the most ancient sciences and at the same time one of the youngest. Stressing this inconsistency, the German psychologist, Ebbingauz, said that psychology has a very long history and a very short history. Psychology has developed in the village of philosophical knowledge, understanding and explanations of the world, its own history begins with the middle of the XIX century, when she stood out into independent science.

With mythological times, a person occupied their own experiences, suffering, passions, behavior, attitude towards the world around the world, which found an expression in the spiritualization of the body and natural things, in attributing the body and the surrounding items of a special mysterious intangible substance called "spirit".

In later times, thinking about human nature is a significant part of philosophical and theological treatises. Already in the VI-V centuries. BC e. Herclica, Anaksagora, Democritus, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and other ancient thinkers were interested in many of those problems that psychologists are working today: the nature of sensations, perception, memory and their mechanisms, prompting, affects, passions, training, types of activity, features character, pathology of behavior, etc.

By the middle of the XIX century. Application of the experimental method in knowledge human nature It did not imagine a special problem. First, the rejection of medieval authoritarianism and scholasticism in the natural sciences, accompanied by the ubiquitous distribution in them various shapes The experiment, it became by that time the established fact. Secondly, many natural scientists (physics, doctors, biologists, physiologists) in their practical activities Increasingly faced with phenomena, the understanding of which required specific knowledge about the device of the human body, especially about the work of its senses, a motor apparatus and brain mechanisms.

Already from the middle of the XVIII century. A variety of experimental methods are used in physiology: artificial irritation of the drug or living organ, registration or observation of answers caused by these irritation, the simplest mathematical processing of the data obtained. In the "Manual on Human Physiology" of the German biologist I. Mullera (1801-1858) reflected the richest experience of physiological research of all functions of the human body.

In the middle of the XIX century. Worked in London Scottish doctor M. Hall (1790-1857) and professor of natural science of French college in Paris P. Florent (1794-1867), exploring the brain functions, widely used the method of extirpation (removal), when the function of a certain part of the animal's brain is established by removing or destroying this part followed by observation of changes in its behavior.

In 1861, French Surgeon P. Brock(1824-1880) proposed a clinical method - a posthumous study of the structure of the brain in order to detect damaged areas that were responsible for behavior. Opened the brain of the deceased and found damage to the abnormal behavior during the patient's life. For example, as a result of a study of the brain, a man who is unable to clearly speak, a "center of speech" was opened (the third head of the cerebral cortex) was opened.

The development of experimental physiology has led to a decisive effect on the anthropological sciences of that time to the consequences: the actual material relating to various parts of the livelihoods of organisms, obtained in experiments it was impossible to establish a speculative pathway; Many vital processes, previously formerly the monopoly subject of religious and philosophical reflections, received new, mainly mechanistic explanations that have these processes in one row with the natural course of things.

The development of psychology as independent science begins with experimental psychology, the origins of which were German scientists. For the first time, the experimental methods of studying consciousness were used by the city of Helmgolts (1821-1894), E. Weber (1795-1878), Féhner (1801-1887), V. Wund (1832-1920).

The rapidly developing physiology of the nervous system has gradually dispanned an increasingly more and more space from philosophy. German physicist and physiologist Gelmgolts. (1821-1894), carrying out the velocity of nerve impulses, began studying visual and hearing, which was the base for the formation of psychology of perception. His theory of perception of color affected not only peripheral aspects studied by the physiology of sense organs, but many centrally caused phenomena, which have not yet managed to control experimentally and fully (for example, its resonant theory of auditory perception).

German physiologist E. Weber (1795-1878), whose main scientific interest was associated with the physiology of the senses, studied skin and kinesthetic sensitivity. His experiments with tangible confirmed the presence of a threshold of sensations, in particular, the two-point threshold. Variating the place of skin irritation, he showed that the magnitude of this threshold is not the same, and explained this difference. Thanks to the works of E. Weber became apparent not only the opportunity to measure human sensations, but also the existence of strict patterns in aware of sensory experience.

The study of the laws of communication between mental and physical phenomena was engaged Fekhner(1801-1887), founder of psychophysics. Deep knowledge on the physiology of sense organs, physical and mathematical education, philosophical knowledge was integrated into a simple, but a brilliant idea formulated as the main psychophysical law. G. Fekhner has developed classical psychophysical methods: the boundaries method, the method of constant incentives and the installation method. They became a powerful tool for solving scientific problems not only in psychophysics, but also in general psychology.

2. Experimental method in psychology. Wilhelm Wondt.From the middle of the XIX century. The situation is made when it becomes possible to apply the experimental methods of natural sciences to the study of the philosophical and psychological problems of the ratio of the soul and body, mental and physical. Despite the fact that the formation of theoretical and methodological foundations psychology influenced such ancient sciencesLike philosophy, medicine, biology, it is believed that a modern approach in psychology takes its beginning of education in 1879. The first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, which was led by a German physiologist, a philosopher, psychologist Wilhelm Wundt.

Wilhelm Wyandt (1832-1920) entered the university on medical facultyHowever, I realized that medicine was not a calling, and dedicated himself to the study of physiology. In 1855 (at 23, he received a doctoral degree and for ten years he read lectures and worked as a laboratory assistant to Gelmholts in Geldelberg. In 1875 he became a professor of philosophy at the University of Leipzig, where he worked for 45 years. It was the most important period of his scientific career.

In 1879, V. Wandt founded the famous psychological laboratory, in 1881 - the magazine "Philosophical Teachings" (since 1906 "Psychological teachings"), a printed organ of his laboratory and new science. Such laboratories were formed subsequently in France, England, USA, Russia, Japan, Italy. In Moscow in 1912, a laboratory was equipped, which became an accurate copy of the Vundovskaya.

The main works of V. Wundt, reflecting the results of his research, are: "To the theory of sensual perception" (1858-1862), "Elements of psychophysics" (1860), "Lectures on the soul of man and animals" (1863), "Fundamentals of Physiological Psychology" (1873, 1874). Based on the laboratory and magazine, V. Wondt, along with experimental studies, appeals to philosophy, logic, aesthetics (1881-1890). At the end of life, he publishes the ten-year work "Psychology of Peoples" (1900-1920). For the period from 1853 to 1920. V. Wondt prepared more than 54 thousand pages of scientific text, i.e. he wrote 2.2 pages daily. Most of the work of the scientist translated into Russian.

Psychology V. Wanda was based on the experimental methods of natural sciences, primarily on physiology. The subject of research was a consciousness. The basis of conceptual views was empiricism (direction in the theory of knowledge, recognizing sensory experience with the only source of reliable knowledge) and associanism (direction in psychology explaining the dynamics of mental processes by the principle of the Association).

V. Wondt believed that consciousness is the essence of the psyche, a complex phenomenon, to study which the method of analysis, or reductionism is best suited. He noted that the first step in the study of a phenomenon should be a complete description of its component elements.

According to the scientist, psychology must first of all immediately experience, which is cleared of all kinds of interpretations and "emergency" knowledge, from indirect experience, which gives knowledge. This experience is not a constituent experience.

The main method of new science appeared introspection - The method of psychological research, which lies in the observation of its own mental processes without the use of any tools or standards. Since psychology - science about the experience of consciousness, it means that the method must assume observation over their own consciousness. To obtain information about the senses, the researcher used any stimulus, and then asked the test to describe the sensations obtained.

Experiments on introspection, or internal perception, conducted in the Leipzig Laboratory for Strict Rules: Accurate determination of the start of the experiment; Observers should not reduce their level of attention; The experiment must be carried out several times; The conditions for conducting the experiment must be acceptable to change and monitor the change in irritation factors.

The introspective analysis was associated not with high-quality introspection (when the subject described his internal experience), and with the direct representations of the test on the value, intensity, the range of the physical stimulus, the reaction time, etc. Thus, the conclusions about the elements and processes of consciousness were made on the basis of only Objective estimates.

In the Leipzig laboratory, psychological and physiological aspects of view and hearing and other feelings were studied. Spectatical sensations and perceptions (color psychophysics, color contrast, peripheral vision, negative residual image, blinding, volumetric vision, optical illusions), tactile sensations, and "sense" of time (perception or assessment of different time intervals). Special attention was paid to experiments aimed at studying the time and speed of the reaction, attention and feelings, verbal associations.

Thus, V. Wundt can be called the founder of modern psychology. Thanks to him, a new industry has emerged in science - experimental psychology. He tried to develop a strict theory of human nature of human thinking. V. Wondt conducted research in a specially created laboratory and published results in his own magazine. Some of the followers of Wundt founded the laboratory and continued its research by achieving wonderful results.

3. Experimental study of higher mental functions. Herman Ebbigauz. Just a few years after the statement by V. Wundt on the impossibility of experimental research of the highest mental functions, a German single psychologist G. Ebbigauz (1850-1909) who worked outside of any universities began to successfully apply an experiment to study memory processes, trained, etc.

The study of the city of Ebbigauz memorization and forgetting processes - an example of ingenious work in experimental psychology - the first experience of considering actually psychological, not psychophysiological problems. For five years, Ebbigauz spent a number of serious research. He argued that the difficulty of learned material can be estimated by the number of repeats for the subsequent error-free reproduction. As a material for memorization, meaningless lists of three-letter syllables were used. It was extremely difficult to find such combinations for the city of Ebbigauza: he owned English, French just like his native German, studied Latin and Greek.

The syllables should be selected in such a way as not to cause associations. His meaningless syllables took place, as a rule, from two consonant and one vowels (for example lEF, Bok. or aUS, TAP, SIP etc.). He painted all possible letter combinations, receiving 2,200 syllables from which at random chose a syllable. Moreover, deprived of meaning should be not only individual syllables, but also the text (list of syllables) as a whole.

During the experiments, the features of training and memorization in different conditions, The difference in the speed of memorizing meaningless syllables and meaningful material, the dependence of the volume of the stored material from the number of repetitions. The study of the city of Ebbigauz was distinguished by its thoroughness, strict control over the observance of experimental conditions, mathematical data analysis.

Other important works are "about memory"; "Psychology principles" (1902); "Essays on psychology" (1908).

The Big Theoretical contribution to the psychology of the city of Ebbigauz did not, he did not create a psychological system, did not base his own school, did not bring up students. His place in the history of psychology is determined by the fact that he marked the beginning of an experimental study of memory processes.

4. Structural direction in experimental psychology and functionalism. Initially, experimental psychology developed in the framework of the structural direction to study the problems of consciousness, following mainly the traditions of the methodological approach R. Descarte. The first psychological laboratories and psychological research (V. Wundt, Ebbigauz, Müller, O. Kulpe, V. M. Bekhterev, E. Utreyin, G. I. Chelpanen, I. A. Sikorsky, etc.) were sent To identify the structure and elements of consciousness (as the main subject of psychology). Psychology at this stage accumulated empirical material, developed a methodology and toolkit for learning mental phenomena. There was no speech about the broad applied use of the knowledge gained. This position in its extreme clearly expressed E. Titchener(1867-1927), American psychologist, student V. Wundt. He believed that structural psychology is a "clean science", which does not have an applied value, and believed that scientists should not worry about the practical value of their research.

But at the same time, another direction in psychology appears - the functionalism that has developed in thek. XIX - N. Xx in. First of all, in American experimental psychology, and has become a conscious protest against structural psychology ("pure science"), which has no applied value.

Functionalism - The scientific direction in psychology, exploring the problems associated with the role of the psyche in the adaptation of the body to the environmental conditions. Representatives of functional psychology are F. Galton, W. Jems, D. Dewey, D. Enegel, Karr and their followers who have developed applied aspects of psychology (S. Hall, J. Kettel, A. Bina, etc.).

Adherents of functionalism did not seek the formal formation of their own scientific school, but, studying the behavior of the body in conditions of its interaction with environmentalthey began to be interested in and questions practical application The results of psychological studies in solving everyday tasks.

English psychologist and anthropologist F. Galton (1822-1911) In the study of the problems of mental heredity and individual differences in the development of children, the statistical methods used the questionnaires and psychological tests. The ultimate goal of research was to contribute to the birth of "high-quality" personalities and prevent the birth of "poor-quality". F. Galton created a new science eugenik, who had the factors that could improve the inherited qualities of people, and argued that human genus, like a pet, can be improved by artificial selection. To do this, it is necessary that talented people choose from a common mass and combined with marriage only with each other for many generations. F. Galton was the first to have developed tests of mental abilities in order to selection of high-detached men and women for further breeding work, although the appearance of this term Science is obliged to American psychologist D. Kettel, V. Wundt's student.

To justify these studies, ensure their objectivity, reliability and reliability F. Galton used statistical methods. The works of F. Galton in the field of statistics also led to the discovery of one of the most important values \u200b\u200b- correlation, the first mention of which appeared in 1888, with the support of F. Galton, his student K. Purson brought to this day the formula for determining the correlation coefficient, called the name "Pearson correlation coefficient. Subsequently, on the basis of works by F. Galton, many other methods of statistical assessments were developed, used to analyze the results of psychological research.

The final version of the functionalism is set out in the book of the American psychologist G. Carr "Psychology" (1925), where it is indicated that the subject of study of psychology is mental activity, i.e. Processes such as perception, memory, imagination, thinking, feelings, will; The psychological function is to acquire, fix, preserve, organizing and evaluating the experiences and use them for leadership behavior. A similar focus of psychological theoretical surveys complied with the needs and demands of the economic and social development of the American society. The scope of applied use of psychology began to expand rapidly.

5. Applied aspects of experimental psychology. One of the "pioneers" in American psychology, which was applied aspects in the field of school Education, is an S. Hall (1844-1924), organizer of the first psychological laboratory at the University of Jones Hopkins (1883). When studying child psychology, S. Hall widely used the questionnaire method with which he met in Germany. By 1915, S. Hall and his students developed and successfully used for a variety of survey 194 studies.

Significant contribution to the development of the fundamentals of psychodiagnostics as an applied aspect of experimental psychology D. Kettel (1860-1944). In one of the articles written by him in 1890, the definition of tests of mental abilities (tests of motor, or sensorobacities) appeared. Working in the University of Pennsylvania, D. Ketel held a series of such tests among his students and by 1901 gathered enough information to establish the relationship between test results and indicators of academic student performance. The results were disappointing. Matching them with similar, obtained in E. Titchener's laboratory, D. Kettel concluded that such tests cannot serve as an indicator of academic performance in college, and therefore the mental abilities of students.

Although the concept of "mental abilities" was introduced by D. Kettel, the test method was widespread thanks to the work. A. Bina (1857-1911), French independent psychologist self-taught, which used more complex criteria for mental development. He did not agree with the approach of F. Galton and D. Kettel, which used tests of sensor engine functions to measure intelligence. A. Bina believed that the best criterion of mental development can be the assessment of such cognitive functionslike memory, attention, imagination, intelligence. Its method provided the ability to effectively measure human mental abilities, which became the beginning of modern testology.

In 1904, A. Binina had the opportunity to prove their right in practice. At the initiative of the ministry national Education France was created by the Commission on the study of the mental abilities of children who experienced difficulties in school learning. A. Bina and Psychiatrist T. Simon participated in the work of the Commission and together developed a number of intellectual tasks for children of various age groups. Based on these tasks, the first test for intelligence was drawn up. Initially, it consisted of 30 verbal, perceptual and manipulative tasks, which were located ascending the difficulties.

In subsequent years, the test was repeatedly revised and modified. A. Bina and T. Simon offered a concept mental agedetermined by the level of those intelligent tasks that the child is able to solve.

After the death of A. Bina in 1911, the development of testology "moved" in the United States, there was even more recognition in France. In 1916 L. Terman, a former student S. Holla, modified the Bene-Simon test, which has since become standard since then. He called him a Stenford-Bine scale by the name of the University of Stenford, where the test was first introduced, and introduced into a wide circulation the concept of mental development coefficient (IQ). The Stenford Bine scale has undergone several editions and is widely used in modern testology.

With the beginning of the First World War and the increased technical equipment of troops in front of the army there was a task to distribute a huge number of recruits on the birth of troops and instruct them with the relevant tasks. In order to test for the complex scale of Stanford Bina, specially trained people were required. This individual-oriented test was not suitable for a large-scale testing program, when in a short time it was necessary to evaluate the abilities of many people. He led the Special Commission, the Group, which included 40 psychologists, the President of APA (American Psychological Association) R. Yerks. After analyzing the tests of tests, the test was taken as the basis S. Otisa And after refinement, the Army Alpha-Test and Army Beta Test ("Beta" was prepared - this is the version of Alpha for non-English-speaking and illiterate people).

The work of the commission went slowly, and in fact, to test recruits began three months before the end of the war. More than a million people were tested. And although the program almost did not have direct influence on military successes (by that time the army no longer needed this data), nevertheless, it turned out to be very important for the development of practical and applied psychology as a whole. Army testing has become a prototype of subsequent mass psychological surveys.

When conducting group tests on the selection of recruits to the army for complex technical specialty It also encouraged the definition of personal characteristics. When the army needed tests for discrassment with neurosis, American psychologist R. Woodvorts (1869-1962) developed a personal data form - a questionnaire in which the surveyors noted those signs of neurotic states, which, in their opinion, they have. Personal data form served as a model for the further development of group testing.

Another student V. Wundt American psychologist W. Scott (1869-1955), leaving the position of structural introspective psychology, applied psychological methods in business and advertising, exploring the problems of market efficiency and motivation in the field of production, trade and consumption. For the needs of the army, they developed a scale of assessing the qualities of junior officers. During World War I., W. Scott proposed a military to use his knowledge in the selection of personnel for the army. By the end of the war, he was awarded the medal "for excellent service" - the highest military award of the United States, which civilian can get. In 1919, W. Scott founded his own company, which provided consulting personnel services and improving efficiency more than forty largest US corporations. In 1920 he became president Northwestern University And he stayed in this post for almost 20 years.

By the time of the end of World War I, applied psychology received their scientific recognition. "Applied Psychology," said E. Torndayk, - this scientific work. Create psychology for business, industry or army is harder than creating psychology for other psychologists, and therefore it requires greater talent. "

6. Experimental psychological studies in Russian psychology.

In Russia, psychology developed under the influence of the reflex theory of I. M. Sechenov, which was further developed in the exercise of I. P. Pavlov on conditional reflexes. In Russian psychology in the Doktyater period (until 1917), naturally allocated natural science and empirical directions, whose representatives made the greatest contribution to the development and development of experimental psychology problems. Classic experimental studiesconducted in the laboratories I. P. Pavlova, V. M. Bekhtereva, as well as psychologists N. N. Lange, N. A. Bernstein, clinicians S. S. Korsakov, A. R. Luria and others, amounted to the natural scientific basis of psychological Knowledge. The ideas of Ch. Darwin on the evolution of the psyche of animals developed in the works of A N. Seversow and V. A. Wagner.

In the 20-30s. XX century Soviet psychology moves to the positions of the dialectical and materialistic method of knowledge. This process was quite controversial. Along with this, experimental studies continue to expand in psycho-physiological laboratories, the swipes are obtained testological examinations in order of career guidance and vocational training in the distribution of professional activities.

During this period, more than 12 research institutes were founded, about 150 laboratories on experimental psychology, many scientific and methodical literature was published. The program of research and development was adopted practical workin which it was indicated for three main areas of research: the study of a person ("subjective moment of labor"), the study and adaptation of labor instruments to the "material situation", study rational methods Labor organization.

In the 30s. Xx in. The USSR received a wide distribution of psychotechnics - the field of psychology, who studied the application of psychology to solve the practical issues, mainly related to the psychology of labor, career guidance and vocational guideline. It was believed that foreign psychotechnical developments were "archurbuisa", since the well-known formula "all have equal opportunities" was subjected to experimentally substantiated criticism by Soviet psychologists. The requirements of neutrality and objectivity, extracurricularity and non-parity of psychology put psychotechnics and psychology of labor in a difficult situation. Critics of experimental psychology were actively asserted that the test procedure becomes an instrument of racial discrimination and laid the function of social regulation, based on a false idea that science could be over the society, its processes, norms and installations.

After the decision of the Central Committee of the VKPB "On the pedology perversion in the system of drug addresses" of psychotechnics (like all practical psychology) fell under the defeat. IN short term All laboratories on industrial psychotechnics and psychophysiology of labor were closed, destroyed or handed over to the closed funds of the archives of psychotechnical literature. The neglected works of scientists - psychotechnics of the 20-30s. Xx in. Preserved only in personal libraries and are difficult to access the wide circle of readers.

In the 40s. XX century Experimental psychological studies have moved to the military sphere. In collaboration with K. Kh. Kekchev in 1941, A. N. Leontyev explored the problem of adapting the visual analyzer, in 1942 a similar task was solved by them in the border troops. In 1945, the book "Restoration of Movement. Psychophysiological study of the restoration of the hand functions after injury, "where the results of the work of A. N. Leontieva and A. V. Zaporozhets under this topic over the years Patriotic War. For the period of the 40-50s. XX century Experimental developments in the field of analysis of individual higher mental functions are characterized, namely thinking, speech, emotions, there has also been a significant progress in the study of problems of children's psychology.

Only by the end of the 50s. XX century Experimental psychology has reached a research and development. In particular, in 1958, under the leadership of K. K. Platonov, the first scientific research and development work on psychotechnical issues began. In the 60s. XX century There is a rapid increase in the number and quality of psychological research. Computer, or "adaptive", psychodiagnostics (V. A. Duk, A. Anastasi, S. Urybina), where the key place is occupied by a computer and mathematical methods. Psychological experimentation is saturated with electronic computing equipment, turns into samples of artificial intelligence. There is a discussion between philosophers, psychologists and cybernetics about the possibility of creating an "artificial intelligence" of such a "natural". Formalized computer psychological techniques are louder and more clearly declare themselves.

Thus, the psychological experiment at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries acquired the individual status of the main method of psychology. The status of psychological science itself has changed under the influence of experimental psychology. "For several decades, I wrote S. L. Rubinstein in 1946, - the actual experimental material that psychology has significantly increased, the methods that she works are more diverse and more precisely, the appearance of science has changed noticeably. The introduction into the psychology of the experiment not only armed with it by this new, very powerful special method of scientific research, but in general, in a new way, it issued the issue of a psychological research method as a whole, having put forward new requirements and criteria for the scientific research of all types of experienced research in psychology. That is why the introduction of the experimental method in psychology played such a large, perhaps, even a decisive role in the registration of psychology as an independent science. "

Currently, experimental psychology is an independent industry of psychological knowledge, without close interaction with no other field of psychology. Any study in any field of psychological knowledge is based on the methodology and methods for conducting psychological research, experiment, methods, techniques and methods of mathematical and statistical processing of psychological data.

Experimental psychology.

1. The subject and tasks of experimental psychology.

Experimental psychology began to be actively shaped in the XIX century as a result of the need to bring psychology to the satisfaction of the basic requirements for science. It is believed that any science should have its own subject of research, its methodology and its thesaurus. The initial task of experimental psychology was the introduction of a scientific method into psychology. The founder of experimental psychology, a person who turned additional psychology into experimental, V. Wundt, a German psychologist and a physiologist, who created the world's first scientific psychological school in the world.

As experimental psychology has been developed, it has expanded its interests: starting with the development of the principles of a psychophysiological experiment, from the instructions for the correct formulation of a psychological experiment, it turned into a scientific discipline, which seeks to summarize knowledge of research methods for all directions of psychology (the experiment becomes only one of the available methods). Of course, experimental psychology is not engaged only by the classification of research methods, it studies their effectiveness and develops them.

Experimental psychology is not a separate science, it is an area of \u200b\u200bpsychology, organizing knowledge about common problems for the majority of psychological areas of research and how to solve them. Experimental psychology answers the question - "How to make an experiment in psychology scientific?".

1) under experimental psychology (WEDDT and Stevenson) understand all scientific psychology as a system of knowledge obtained on the basis of experimental study of mental processes, personal properties and human behavior. It is opposed to philosophical issues and introspection (self-observation).

2) Experimental psychology is a system of experimental methods and techniques implemented in specific studies. As a rule, experimental psychology in the American school is interpreted.

3) The European School under experimental psychology understand only the theory of a psychological experiment based on the general scientific theory of the experiment.

Thus, experimental psychology is a scientific discipline engaged in the problem of psychological research in general.

Three main objectives of experimental psychology in a psychological study can be distinguished:

1. Development of adequate methods of examination corresponding to the subject of the study.

2. Development of the principles of the organization of experimental research: planning, conducting and interpretation.

3. Development of scientific methods of psychological measurements. The use of mathematical methods.

2. Basic methodological principles of psychological research

The methodology of experimental psychology is based on the following principles:

1. The principle of determinism. Its essence comes down to the fact that all mental phenomena are predetermined by the interaction of the body with an external environment. Experimental psychology proceeds from the fact that human behavior and mental phenomena are a consequence of any reasons, that is, fundamentally explained. (Whatever happens, it has its own reasons). Without the causative links, it would be impossible.

2. The principle of objectivity. Experimental psychology believes that the object of knowledge is independent of the learning subject; The object is fundamentally learning through action. Independence of the knowledge of the subject from the subject is possible. Psychological methods allow us to objectively know reality. The goal is to maximize the minds. Methods of mathematical statistics allow you to make knowledge objective.

3. The principle of unity of physiological and mental. There is no hard gap between physiological and mental. The nervous system ensures the emergence and course of mental processes, but it is impossible to reduce mental phenomena to physiological processes. On the one hand, mental and physiological represent some unity, but this is not a identity.

4. The principle of unity of consciousness and activity. Suggests that it is impossible to separate the behavior, consciousness and identity; Everything is mutually intertwined. Leontyev: Consciousness is active, and the activity is conscious. An experimental psychologist is studying the behavior that is formed with the close interaction of the personality with the situation. It is expressed as follows: r \u003d f (p, s), where R is the behavior, P is a person, and S is a situation. In Russian psychology there is a division:

The principle of unity of personality and activity;

The principle of unity of consciousness and personality.

5. Principle of development. Also known as the principle of historicism and the genetic principle. Development is the universal property of matter; The brain is also the result of long evolutionary development. According to this principle of the psyche of the subject - the result of long-term development in phylogenesis and ontogenesis. The principle emphasizes - any of our functioning is infinite and depends on both the incentives of the external environment and the impact of social and historical factors.

6. System-structural principle. Any mental phenomena should be considered as holistic processes. (Impact is performed always on the psyche as a whole, and not on some isolated part of it.) The principle argues that all mental phenomena should be considered as included in the hierarchical staircase in which the lower floors are managed by the highest, and the highest includes the lower and rest on them. It is impossible to consider attention, temperament and ... regardless of everything else from each other.

7. The principle of falsifiability - the requirement of the methodological possibility of refuting the theory appropriate for the results of the methodological possibility of refuting the theory of the theory appropriate for the results of a fundamentally possible real experiment.

3. Structure of experimental research

The structure of the experimental study consists of the following steps:

1. Setting the task or definition of the topic. Any study begins with the definition of the topic (it limits what we will explore). The study is carried out in three cases:

1- Check hypothesis about the existence of a phenomenon;

2- testing hypothesis about the existence of communication between phenomena;

3- checking the hypothesis about the causal dependence of the phenomenon A on the phenomenon V.

The primary formulation of the problem is to formulate the hypothesis. Psychological hypothesis, or experimental, - a hypothesis of mental phenomenon, the test tool of which is a psychological study.

Psychological hypothesis is often confused with statistical, which is put forward during the statistical analysis of the results of the experiment.

2. Stage of work with scientific literature - theoretical review. The initial base is created. The theoretical review is necessarily associated with the topic of research. (In the course work - the goal is to show how familiar with the literature on the chosen topic). Includes: search for baseline definitions, preparation of bibliography on the subject of research.

3. The stage of clarifying the hypothesis and determining variables. Determination of experimental hypothesis.

4. Choosing an experimental tool and experimental conditions (answers the question - "How to organize a study?"):

1- Allows you to manage an independent variable. An independent variable - in the scientific experiment, a variable that is intentionally manipulated or is selected by the experimenter in order to find out its effect on the dependent variable.

2- Allows you to register the dependent variable. Dependent variable - In the scientific experiment, the measured variable, the changes of which bind to the changes in the independent variable.

5. Experimental research planning:

1- Allocation of additional variables.

2- Selection of an experimental plan.

Experimental planning is one of the most important stages of the organization of a psychological study on which the researcher is trying to construct the most optimal model to implement in practice (that is, the plan) of the experiment.

6. Formation of sampling and distribution of groups of groups in accordance with the accepted plan.

7. Experiment

1- Preparation of the experiment

2- Instructing and motivation of subjects

3- actually experimentation

8. Statistical processing

1- Selection of statistical processing methods

2- transformation of experimental hypothesis in statistical hypothesis

3- Conducting statistical processing

9. Interpretation of the results and conclusions

10. Fixation of research in a scientific report, article, monograph, letter to the editorial office of the scientific journal.

4. Psychological research hypothesis

Psychological hypothesis, or experimental, is a hypothesis of mental phenomenon, the test tool of which is a psychological study.

Three types of hypothesis can be distinguished by its origin:

1. It is based on the theory or models of reality and represents the forecasts of the consequences of these theories or models (we check the possible consequence of theory).

2. Experimental hypotheses extended to confirm or refute theories or previously detected patterns, but they are not based on existing theories (search for contradictions, exceptions).

3. Empirical hypotheses that are put forward irrelevant any theory or model, that is, are formulated for this case. After checking, such a hypothesis turns into a fact (again only for a given case); Her goal to try to understand the general uniform reasons for this phenomenon; This is a scientific research on fact. Simple transfer to another case is not possible; In another case, these patterns do not exist.

Gottsdanger, in addition to the previous one, allocates several species of experimental hypotheses:

1. Counterbipothesis (in statistics - zero hypothesis) - an alternative hypothesis that denies a common hypothesis.

2. Third competing experimental hypothesis (not quite something, and not quite different).

G1 - they are prone to depression.

G0 - they are not prone to depression.

G2 - among children suffering from stuttering, there are children who do not suffer from depression.

If the overall hypothesis was partially confirmed, then it is necessary to test the third hypothesis.

Several types of hypotheses are distinguished:

1. Experimental hypothesis at the maximum or minimum value, which is verified only with a multi-level experiment.

2. Experimental hypothesis about absolute or proportional relations is an accurate assumption about the nature of the quantitative change in the dependent variable with a gradual quantitative change in independent. Hypothesis relationship.

3. Combined experimental hypothesis is an assumption about the attitude between a certain combination of two or more independent variables on one side and the dependent variable on the other side, which is verified only in a factor experiment.

1- from child readiness factors to school - intellectual readiness;

2- personal or social readiness;

3- emotional-volitional readiness.

These factors are causes of academic performance (when one of the factors falls out.

5. Statistical research hypothesis

The hypothesis is a scientific assumption that flows out of the theory that has not yet been confirmed and is not refuted. As a rule, the hypothesis speaks on the basis of a number of confirming its observations (examples), and therefore it looks plausible. The hypothesis subsequently or proved, turning it into the established fact (theorem), or refute (for example, pointing to the counterexample), translating false statements into the category.

The hypothesis is the basis for the organization of the experiment. Experimental hypothesis - primary, but in addition to the experiment, statistical research hypothesis is distinguished. Any psychological hypothesis has a statistical design, it is impossible to build hypotheses that cannot be written in the language of mathematical statistics.

Statistical hypothesis - approval with respect to an unknown parameter formulated in the language of mathematical statistics; It is advanced during the statistical analysis of the results of the experiment. Statistical is called a hypothesis about the form of an unknown distribution or the parameters of known distributions.

Statisticals are called the hypotheses of the following types:

1. On the form of the distribution of the studied value;

2. On the distribution parameters, the type of which is known;

3. On equality or inequality of parameters of two or several distributions;

4. On the dependence or independence of two or several distributions.

So: With the help of statistical hypotheses, we confirm or refute experimental hypotheses, which, in turn, confirm or refute our heuristics. Statistical hypothesis is mathematical formalization of intuitive insight. After statistical hypotheses are formulated, data analysis is analyzed.

Distinguish hypotheses: zero and alternative.

The hypothesis arguing that there is no distinction between compared characteristics, and the observed deviations are explained only by random fluctuations in samples, on the basis of which a comparison is made, called zero (main) hypothesis and denoted H0. Along with the main hypothesis, an alternative (competing, contradictory) hypothesis H1 is also considered. And if the zero hypothesis will be rejected, there will be an alternative hypothesis.

Alternative hypothesis is an assumption taken in case of deviation of zero hypothesis. An alternative hypothesis approves a positive relationship between the variables studied.

Zero hypothesis - the assumption of the absence of interconnection or correlation between the studied variables. Distinguish simple and complex hypotheses. The hypothesis is called simple if it definitely characterizes the distribution parameter of a random variable. Complicated is called a hypothesis, which consists of a finite or infinite set of simple hypotheses.

6. German psychology school (T. Ferehner and V. Wund)

Wilhelm WundT: "Father" of experimental psychology. German psychologist, physiologist, philosopher V. Wondt (1832-1920). Wundt put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bcreating experimental psychology, the plan of which was set forth in his "lectures about the soul of man and animals." The plan included two directions of research: a) Analysis of individual consciousness with the help of experimental controlled observation of the subject for its own sensations, feelings, ideas; b) the study of the "psychology of peoples", i.e. Psychological aspects of the culture of the language, myths, morals. The task of psychology, as well as all other sciences, is to highlight the original elements by analyzing the original elements; b) establish the nature of the relationship between them and c) find the laws of this connection. The analysis meant dismemberment of the direct experience of the subject. This is achieved by introspection, which should not be mixed with conventional self-observation. The introspection is a special procedure requiring special training. In conventional self-observation, it is difficult for a person to separate the perception as a mental internal process from a perceived subject, which is not mental, but data in external experience. The subject should be able to be distracted from all external to get to the original "matter" of consciousness. The latter consists of elementary, further indecomposable "threads of the components". They are inherent in such qualities as modality and intensity. Elements of consciousness also include feelings (emotional states). According to the hypothesis of Wundt, each feeling has three dimensions: a) pleasure - displeasure, b) tensions - relaxation, c) excitation - soothing. Simple feelings as mental elements vary according to their quality and intensity, but any of them can be characterized in all three aspects. This hypothesis gave rise to many experimental work, in which, along with the introspection data, objective indicators of changes in the physiological states of a person were used in emotions.

In an effort to defend the independence of psychological science, Vundt argued that she has its own laws, and the phenomena studied by it are subject to special "mental causality". In support of this conclusion, he referred to the law of conservation of energy. Material movement may be the cause of only the material. For mental phenomena there is another source, and they, accordingly, require other laws. To these laws of WEDDT referred: the principles of creative synthesis, the law of mental relations (the dependence of the event on the internal relationships of elements - for example, the melodies from the relations in which separate tones are between themselves), the law of contrast (opposites increase each other) and the law of heterogeneity of the goals ( The act may arise not to the initial goal of action affecting its motive).

According to WUNDTU, only elementary mental processes (sensations, simplest feelings) are subject to experimental studies. As for more complex forms of mental life, here the experiment with all its advantages, progressive science, is unsuitable. This conviction of Wundt was dispelled by further events in psychology. Already the nearest disciples of Wandet proved that such complex processes, as thinking and will, are also open to experimental analysis, as well as elementary.

From Wundt, pedigree psychology is taken as an independent discipline. He created the largest school in the history of this science. The young researchers from different countries who have passed this school, returned to their homeland, organized laboratories and centers there, where the ideas and principles of the new knowledge of the knowledge were cultivated, worthy of these independence. WUNDT has played an important role in consolidating the community of researchers who have become psychologists-professionals. Discussions about its theoretical positions, the prospects for the application of experimental methods, understanding the subject of psychology and many other problems stimulated the emergence of concepts and directions that have enriched psychology with new scientific ideas. With the introduction into the psychology of the experiment, the first chapter of its chronicles as independent science opens. It is thanks to the experiment that the search for causal connections and dependencies in psychology acquired solid soil. There was a prospect of mathematically accurate wording of real psychological patterns. The experience radically changed the criteria for the learning of psychological knowledge. It began to prevent reproducibility requirements in conditions that can be re-created by any other researcher. Objectivity, repeatability, checker becomes criteria for the reliability of the psychological fact and the basis for its class attribution to the discharge of scientific.

Gustav Teodore Fehner: the foundations of psychophysics. German physicist, psychologist, philosopher, professor of physicists of the University of Leipzig G.T.Fehner due to illness and partial blindness caused by the study of visual sensations when surveillance at the Sun, engaged in philosophy, paying special attention to the problem of relations between material and spiritual phenomena. With improved health, he began to study this relationship experimentally, applying mathematical methods. In the center of his interests, the fact of differences between sensations, depending on what the initial value of the irritants caused by irritants was found. Having studied how the feelings of various modalities change (the experiments were put on sensations that arise when weighing objects of various severity, with perception of objects at a distance, with variations in their illumination, etc.), Fehner drew attention to the fact that similar experiments Holded for a quarter of a century to him, his compatriot E. West, who introduced the concept of "hardly noticeable difference between sensations." And this "barely noticeable difference" is not the same for all types of sensations. There was an idea of \u200b\u200bthe thresholds of sensations, i.e. On the magnitude of the stimulus changing the feeling. In cases where the minimum increase in the magnitude of the stimulus is accompanied by a hardly noticeable change in the feeling, they began to talk about the difference threshold. Regularity was established: In order for the intensity of the sensation of growing in arithmetic progression, it is necessary ascending in the geometric progression of the value of its incentive. This attitude received the name of the Weber-Ferehner law. The general formula derived from his experiments, Fehner marked as follows: The intensity of the sensation is proportional to the logarithm of the stimulus (stimulus). Fehner carefully developed experimental technique to determine the thresholds of sensations so that it is possible to establish the minimum (barely noticeable) distinction between them. Fechner belongs to a number of other methods for measuring sensations (skin, visual, etc.). This area of \u200b\u200bresearch was mentioned by psychophysics, since its content was determined by experimental study and measurement of dependence mental states from physical influences.

The Book of Ferechner "Fundamentals of Psychophysics" was kept for the development of psychology as an independent experimental science. In all newly emerging laboratories, the definition of thresholds and verification of the Weber-Fekhner's law became one of the main topics demonstrating the possibility of mathematically accurately determine the patterns between mental and physical.

Along with psychophysics, Fehner has become the creator of experimental aesthetics. It applied its overall experimental and mathematical approach to comparing objects of art, trying to find a formula that would allow to determine which objects and thanks to which properties are perceived as pleasant, and which do not cause beauty sensations. Fehner engaged in a thorough measurement of books, cards, windows, household items, as well as works of art in the hope of finding those quantitative relations between lines that cause positive aesthetic feelings.

Fechner's works became a sample and for subsequent generations of researchers who, not limited to the study of psychophysics in the narrow sense of the word, distributed the methodological techniques of the fechner on the problems of psychodiagnostics, the study of decision-making criteria, emotional states among individual individuals.

A universal forummary derived by Fehener, according to which the sensation intensity is proportional to the logarithm of the intensity of the irritant, became a sample of the introduction into the psychology of strict mathematical measures.

The development of psychophysics began with ideas about seemingly local mental phenomena. But she had a huge methodological and methodological resonance in the entire corps of psychological knowledge. The psychology introduced an experiment, number, measure. The table of logarithms was applied to the phenomena of mental life, to the behavior of the subject, when he has to determine the barely noticeable differences between the phenomena. A breakthrough from psychophysiology to psychophysics was significant and in that particular, which divided the principles of causality and patterns. After all, psychophysiology was strong in clarifying the causal dependence of the subjective fact (sensation) from the structure of the body (nerve fibers), as the "anatomical principle" required. The psychophysics also proved that in psychology and in the absence of knowledge about the bodily substrate, laws that are subject to its phenomenon may be subject to.

7. English School Psychology

8. French school psychology

9. American Psychology School

10. Russian school of psychology

11. Classification of methods in psychology

Classification of methods in psychology (European Classification of Pyrov):

1. Observation. Observation is a descriptive psychological research method consisting in targeted and organized perception and registration of the behavior of the object being studied. There are several types of observation:

Objective:

Directly in the process of vital activity;

Objective-clinical - used in hospitals;

Mediated observation, which is some questionnaires or analysis of human activity.

Subjective observation or self-surveillance. The introspection is a psychological research method, which is to observe its own mental processes without using any tools or standards. The introspection is the method of in-depth study and knowledge of the person's acts of their own activity: individual thoughts, images, feelings, experiences, acts of thinking as an activity of the mind, structuring consciousness, etc.

Direct self-surveillance or verbal report of a person about what happened or happening.

Mediated self-surveillance, built on learning diaries, letters, drawings or man memories.

2. Experiment. Psychological experiment - the experience held in special conditions for obtaining new scientific knowledge through the targeted intervention of the researcher in the vital activity of the subject. Distinguish:

A laboratory experiment or an artificial experiment - in psychology, this type of experiment, which is carried out in artificially created conditions (within the framework of the scientific laboratory) and in which, as far as possible, the interaction of the subjects under study is ensured only with those factors that are interested in the experimenter. The subjects under study are considered subject or group of subjects, and the factors of interest to the researchers are called relevant incentives.