The complete guide to biology Lerner. Biology
M .: 2015 .-- 416 p.
This handbook contains all the theoretical material on the course of biology necessary for passing the exam. It includes all the elements of the content checked by control and measuring materials, and helps to generalize and systematize knowledge and skills for the course of secondary (full) school. The theoretical material is presented in a concise, accessible form. Each section is accompanied by examples test items, allowing you to test your knowledge and the degree of preparedness for the certification exam. Practical assignments correspond to the format of the Unified State Exam. At the end of the manual, there are answers to tests that will help students and applicants test themselves and fill in the gaps. The manual is addressed to schoolchildren, applicants and teachers.
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CONTENT
From author 12
Section 1. BIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE. METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
1.1. Biology as a science, its achievements, methods of cognition of living nature. The role of biology in the formation of the modern natural science picture of the world 14
1.2. Layered organization and evolution. The main levels of organization of living nature: cellular, organismic, population-specific, biogeocenotic, biosphere.
Biological systems. General signs of biological systems: cellular structure, features chemical composition, metabolism and energy conversion, homeostasis, irritability, movement, growth and development, reproduction, evolution 20
Section 2. CELL AS A BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM
2.1. Modern cell theory, its main provisions, role in the formation of the modern natural science picture of the world. Development of knowledge about the cell. The cellular structure of organisms is the basis of the unity of the organic world, evidence of the relationship of living nature 26
2.2. Variety of cells. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Comparative characteristics cells of plants, animals, bacteria, fungi 28
2.3. Chemical composition, organization of the cell. Macro and microelements. The relationship between the structure and functions of inorganic and organic substances (proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids, ATP) that make up the cell. Role chemical substances in the cell and the human body 33
2.3.1. Inorganic substances cells 33
2.3.2. Organic matter of the cell. Carbohydrates, lipids 36
2.3.3. Proteins, their structure and function 40
2.3.4. Nucleic acids 45
2.4. Cell structure. The relationship between the structure and functions of parts and organelles of a cell is the basis of its integrity 49
2.4.1. Features of the structure of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Comparative data 50
2.5. Metabolism and energy conversion are properties of living organisms. Energy and plastic exchange, their relationship. Stages energy exchange... Fermentation and breathing. Photosynthesis, its significance, cosmic role. Phases of photosynthesis.
Light and dark reactions of photosynthesis, their relationship. Chemosynthesis. The role of chemosynthetic bacteria on Earth 58
2.5.1. Energy and plastic metabolism, their relationship 58
2.5.2. Energy metabolism in the cell (dissimilation) 60
2.5.3. Photosynthesis and chemosynthesis 64
2.6. Genetic information in a cage. Genes, genetic code and its properties. Matrix nature of biosynthesis reactions. Biosynthesis of protein and nucleic acids 68
2.7. A cell is a genetic unit of a living thing. Chromosomes, their structure (shape and size) and functions. The number of chromosomes and their species constancy.
Somatic and germ cells. Cell life cycle: interphase and mitosis. Mitosis is the division of somatic cells. Meiosis. Phases of mitosis and meiosis.
The development of germ cells in plants and animals. Cell division is the basis for the growth, development and reproduction of organisms. The role of meiosis and mitosis 75
Section 3. ORGANISM AS A BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM
3.1. Variety of organisms: unicellular and multicellular; autotrophs, heterotrophs. Viruses - non-cellular forms life 85
3.2. Reproduction of organisms, its meaning. Reproduction methods, the similarity and difference between sex and asexual reproduction... Fertilization in flowering plants and vertebrates. External and internal and fertilization 85
3.3. Ontogenesis and its inherent patterns. Embryonic and postembryonic development of organisms. Causes of developmental disorders of organisms 90
3.4. Genetics, its tasks. Heredity and variability are the properties of organisms. Basic genetic concepts and symbols. Chromosomal theory of heredity.
Modern concepts of the gene and the genome 95
3.5. Regularities of heredity, their cytological foundations. Regularities of inheritance, established by G. Mendel, their cytological basis (mono- and dihybrid crossing).
T. Morgan's laws: linked inheritance of traits, gene linkage disorders. Genetics of sex. Inheritance of sex-linked traits.
Interaction of genes. Genotype as an integral system. Human genetics. Methods for studying human genetics. Solving genetic problems. Drawing up crossing schemes 97
3.6. Regularities of variability. Non-hereditary variability (modification).
Reaction rate. Hereditary variability: mutational, combinative. Types of mutations and their causes. The significance of variability in the life of organisms and in evolution 107
3.6.1. Variability, its types and biological significance 108
3.7. The importance of genetics for medicine. Hereditary human diseases, their causes, prevention. The harmful effect of mutagens, alcohol, drugs, nicotine on the genetic apparatus of the cell. Protection of the environment from contamination by mutagens.
Identification of sources of mutagens in the environment (indirectly) and assessment of the possible consequences of their influence on their own body 113
3.7.1. Mutagens, mutagenesis, 113
3.8. Breeding, its tasks and practical significance... N.I. Vavilov in the development of breeding: the doctrine of the centers of diversity and origin of cultivated plants. The law of homologous series in hereditary variation.
Methods for breeding new varieties of plants, animal breeds, strains of microorganisms.
The value of genetics for breeding. Biological bases of cultivation of cultivated plants and domestic animals 116
3.8.1. Genetics and breeding 116
3.8.2. Methods of work I.V. Michurina 118
3.8.3. Centers of origin of cultivated plants 118
3.9. Biotechnology, its directions. Cellular and genetic engineering, cloning. The role of cell theory in the formation and development of biotechnology. The importance of biotechnology for the development of breeding, agriculture, microbiological industry, preservation of the planet's gene pool. Ethical aspects of the development of some research in biotechnology (human cloning, directed changes in the genome) 122
3.9.1. Cellular and genetic engineering. Biotechnology 122
Section 4. SYSTEM AND DIVERSITY OF THE ORGANIC WORLD
4.1. Variety of organisms. The significance of the works of C. Linnaeus and J.-B. Lamarck. The main systematic (taxonomic) categories: species, genus, family, order (order), class, type (department), kingdom; their subordination 126
4.2. The kingdom of bacteria, structure, life, reproduction, role in nature. Bacteria are the causative agents of diseases of plants, animals, humans. Prevention of diseases caused by bacteria. Viruses 130
4.3. The kingdom of mushrooms, structure, life, reproduction. The use of mushrooms for food and medicine. Recognition of edible and poisonous mushrooms. Lichens, their diversity, structural features and vital activity.
The role of fungi and lichens in nature 135
4.4. The kingdom of plants. The structure (tissues, cells, organs), vital activity and reproduction of a plant organism (for example, angiosperms). Recognition (in pictures) of plant organs 140
4.4.1. general characteristics kingdoms plants 140
4.4.2. Tissues of higher plants 141
4.4.3. Vegetative organs of flowering plants. Root 142
4.4.4. Escape 144
4.4.5. The flower and its functions. Inflorescences and their biological significance 148
4.5. Variety of plants. The main departments of plants. Classes of angiosperms, the role of plants in nature and human life 153
4.5.1. Life Cycles plants 153
4.5.2. Monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants 158
4.5.3. The role of plants in nature and human life
4.6. The animal kingdom. Unicellular and multicellular animals. Characteristics of the main types of invertebrates, classes of arthropods. Features of the structure, life, reproduction, role in nature and human life 164
4.6.1. General characteristics of the kingdom Animals 164
4.6.2. Subkingdom Unicellular, or Protozoa. General characteristics 165
4.6.3. Type Intestinal. General characteristics. Diversity of coelenterates 171
4.6.4. Comparative characteristics of representatives of the type Flatworms 176
4.6.5. Type Primary cavities, or Roundworms 182
4.6.6. A type Ringed worms... General characteristics 186
4.6.7. Type Shellfish 191
4.6.8. Type Arthropod 197
4.7. Chordates. Characteristics of the main classes. Role in nature and human life. Recognition (in the figures) of organs and organ systems in animals 207
4.7.1. General characteristics of the Chordovykh type 207
4.7.2. Pisces superclass 210
4.7.3. Class Amphibians. General characteristics 215
4.7.4. Class Reptiles. General characteristics 220
4.7.5. Bird Class 226
4.7.6. Class Mammals. General characteristics 234
Section 5. HUMAN BODY AND ITS HEALTH
5.1. Fabrics. The structure and vital functions of organs and systems of organs: digestion, respiration, excretion. Recognition (in pictures) of tissues, organs, organ systems 243
5.1.1. Human anatomy and physiology. Fabrics 243
5.1.2. The structure and function of the digestive system. 247
5.1.3. The structure and function of the respiratory system 252
5.1.4. The structure and function of the excretory system. 257
5.2. The structure and vital functions of organs and systems of organs: musculoskeletal, integumentary, blood circulation, lymph circulation. Human reproduction and development 261
5.2.1. The structure and functions of the musculoskeletal system 261
5.2.2. Skin, its structure and function 267
5.2.3. The structure and functions of the circulatory and lymph circulation organs 270
5.2.4. Reproduction and development of the human body 278
5.3. The internal environment of the human body. Blood groups. Blood transfusion. Immunity. Metabolism and energy conversion in the human body. Vitamins 279
5.3.1. The internal environment of the body. Composition and function of blood. Blood groups. Blood transfusion. Immunity 279
5.3.2. Metabolism in the human body 287
5.4. Nervous and endocrine systems. Neurohumoral regulation of the body's vital processes as the basis of its integrity, connection with the environment 293
5.4.1. Nervous system... General plan of the building. Functions 293
5.4.2. The structure and function of the central nervous system 298
5.4.3. The structure and function of the autonomic nervous system 305
5.4.4. Endocrine system. Neurohumoral regulation of vital processes 309
5.5. Analyzers. The sense organs, their role in the body. Structure and function. Higher nervous activity. Sleep, its meaning. Consciousness, memory, emotions, speech, thinking. Features of the human psyche 314
5.5.1. Sense organs (analyzers). The structure and functions of the organs of sight and hearing 314
5.5.2. Higher nervous activity. Sleep, its meaning. Consciousness, memory, emotions, speech, thinking. Features of the human psyche 320
5.6. Personal and public hygiene, healthy lifestyle. Prevention of infectious diseases (viral, bacterial, fungal caused by animals). Injury prevention,
first aid techniques. Mental and physical health of a person. Health factors (auto-training, hardening, physical activity).
Risk factors (stress, physical inactivity, overwork, hypothermia). Bad and good habits.
Dependence of human health on the state of the environment. Compliance with sanitary and hygienic standards and rules of a healthy lifestyle.
Human reproductive health. Consequences of the influence of alcohol, nicotine, drugs on the development of the human embryo 327
Section 6. EVOLUTION OF LIVING NATURE
6.1. Kind, his criteria. Population - structural unit species and an elementary unit of evolution. Formation of new species. Speciation methods 335
6.2. Development of evolutionary ideas. Significance of the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin. The interconnection of the driving forces of evolution.
Forms natural selection, types of struggle for existence. The interconnection of the driving forces of evolution.
Synthetic theory of evolution. Research by S.S. Chetverikov. Elementary factors of evolution. The role of evolutionary theory in shaping
modern natural science picture of the world 342
6.2.1. Development of evolutionary ideas. The significance of the works of C. Linnaeus, the teachings of J.-B. Lamarck, the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin. The interconnection of the driving forces of evolution. Elementary factors of evolution 342
6.2.2. Synthetic theory of evolution. Research by S.S. Chetverikov. The role of evolutionary theory
in the formation of a modern natural science picture of the world 347
6.3. Evidence for the evolution of wildlife. Evolutionary results: fitness of organisms
to the habitat, variety of species 351
6.4. Macroevolution. Directions and ways of evolution (A.N.Severtsov, I.I.Shmalgauzen). Biological
progress and regression, aromorphosis, idioadaptation, degeneration. The causes of biological progress
and regression. Hypotheses of the origin of life on Earth.
The evolution of the organic world. The main aromorphoses in the evolution of plants and animals. Complication of living organisms in the process of evolution 358
6.5. Human Origins. Man as a species, his place in the system of the organic world.
Hypotheses of human origin. Driving forces and stages of human evolution. Human races,
their genetic relationship. The biosocial nature of man. Social and natural environment,
adapting a person to it 365
6.5.1. Anthropogenesis. Driving forces. The role of the laws of public life in human social behavior 365
Section 7. ECOSYSTEMS AND THEIR INherent REGULARITIES
7.1. Habitats of organisms. Environmental factors environments: abiotic, biotic, their meaning. Anthropogenic factor 370
7.2. Ecosystem (biogeocenosis), its components: producers, consumers, reducers, their role. Species and spatial structure of the ecosystem. Trophic levels. Power chains and networks, their links. Drawing up schemes for the transfer of substances and energy (circuits and power networks).
Ecological pyramid rule 374
7.3. Diversity of ecosystems (biogeocenoses). Self-development and change of ecosystems. Sustainability and dynamics of ecosystems. Biodiversity, self-regulation and the cycle of substances are the basis
sustainable development of ecosystems. The reasons for the stability and change of ecosystems. Changes in ecosystems influenced by human activities.
Agroecosystems, the main differences from natural ecosystems 379
7.4. The biosphere is a global ecosystem. The teachings of V.I. Vernadsky about the biosphere. Living substance, its functions. Features of the distribution of biomass on the Earth. The biological circulation of substances and the transformation of energy in the biosphere, the role of organisms of different kingdoms in it. Evolution of the biosphere 384
7.5. Global changes in the biosphere caused by human activities (violation of the ozone screen, acid rain, greenhouse effect, etc.). Problems of sustainable development of the biosphere. Preservation of species diversity as the basis for biosphere sustainability. Rules of conduct in the natural environment 385
390 replies
In answering this question, you need to think about what processes are disrupted due to the tightening of the finger.
Elements of the correct answer
1. When the finger is tightened, the flow of arterial blood into its vessels and the outflow of venous blood is disturbed - the finger turns purple.
2. The amount of interstitial fluid increases - the finger brightens.
Answer yourself
What fluids make up the internal environment of the body and how do they move?
What is called homeostasis and by what mechanism is it regulated?
Elements of the correct answer
1. The causative agents of each disease are specific, i.e. contain antigens peculiar to them.
2. Antibodies that bind an antigen are strictly specific to it and are unable to bind other antigens.
Example: antigens of plague bacteria will not bind to antibodies produced against pathogens of cholera.
Answer yourself
In order to prevent tetanus, a healthy person was administered anti-tetanus serum. Did the doctors do the right thing? Explain the answer.
A person with diphtheria was vaccinated against diphtheria. Did the doctors do the right thing? Explain the answer.
Elements of the correct answer
1. Incomplete closure of the tricuspid valve can lead to a reverse flow of blood into the systemic circulation.
2. Stagnation of blood in the large circle and swelling of the extremities may occur.
Note: these consequences easily follow from simple reasoning, you just need to remember that the tricuspid valve is located between the right ventricle and the right atrium. There may be other, more serious consequences.
Answer yourself
Why does blood move in one direction?
Why does blood flow through the vessels continuously?
Where is the rate of blood flow higher: in the aorta or capillaries, and why?
What factors ensure the movement of blood through the veins?
Describe the path of the drug from the forearm right hand to the vessels of the brain.
Elements of the correct answer
1. Sneezing is a protective respiratory reflex, the mechanism of respiration regulation is a reflex one.
2. The mechanism of resumption of respiration after a delay is humoral, it is the reaction of the respiratory center of the brain to an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood.
Answer yourself
Why does a person involuntarily hold their breath when entering icy water?
When is it advisable to wear a gauze bandage or respirator and why?
Elements of the correct answer
1. In each section of the digestive system, there is a certain acidity and temperature of the environment in which the corresponding enzymes work most effectively. Therefore, in each department, certain nutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, fats) are broken down.
2. Enzymes function only in a certain pH range of the medium and break down strictly defined substances, i.e. enzymes special
feature.
Answer yourself
Why do proteins start to be broken down only in the stomach?
What processes occur when food enters the duodenum from the stomach?
Elements of the correct answer
1. With inflammation of the gastric mucosa, it becomes less protected from exposure of hydrochloric acid and enzymes.
2. Inflammation of the gastric mucosa leads to gastritis, and then to stomach ulcers.
Answer yourself
What are the causes of gastritis and stomach ulcers?
What preventive measures can prevent gastritis and stomach ulcers?
Elements of the correct answer
1. A decrease in body temperature will lead to a decrease in the rate of biochemical reactions.
2. All reflexes of a person will slow down, the speed of his behavioral reactions will decrease. Such a transition can be disastrous for a person.
Answer yourself
What is the difference between cold-bloodedness and warm-bloodedness?
What is the opposite of metabolic reactions in the body?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Stones are formed due to excess salt in the urine.
2. Stones are formed due to a lack of substances in the urine that prevent their formation.
Answer yourself
What can the formation of kidney or bladder stones lead to?
What is the prevention of kidney or bladder stones?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Prolonged exposure to the sun leads to skin burns and heatstroke.
2. Ultraviolet radiation in high doses can provoke the growth of malignant tumors.
Answer yourself
Why is it beneficial for children to take short-term sunbathing?
What is the thermoregulatory function of the skin?
Elements of the correct answer
1. During takeoff and landing, there is a change in air pressure on the eardrum both from the side external environment and from the side of the middle ear.
2. During takeoff, the pressure from the middle ear is higher, and during landing it decreases, but the pressure on the eardrum from the external auditory canal increases.
Answer yourself
Why do you suggest opening your mouth or sucking on lollipops in the cabin during takeoff and landing?
What is decompression sickness and how is it dangerous?
Why do pearl divers submerge quickly and emerge slowly?
The answers to these questions can be found on the Internet or in additional literature.
Elements of the correct answer
1. In mountainous areas, water is usually low in iodine.
2. The diet must include foods containing iodine.
Answer yourself
What are the consequences of a lack of thyroid hormones?
What are the reasons for the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus?
What non-drug measures to lower blood glucose would you recommend for someone with mildly elevated blood glucose?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Nervous mechanism: excitation of the receptors of the uterus leads to its contraction.
2. The humoral mechanism: the production of hormones stimulates the contraction of the muscles of the uterus.
Answer yourself
What is the difference between male and female reproductive cells?
Why does only one sperm fertilize an egg?
Level C2 Questions
Ability to work with text and pictures
Elements of the correct answer
(Only a hint is given to find the exact answer.)
Sentence 2 incorrectly indicates the number of vertebrae in the spinal column.
Sentence 4 incorrectly indicates the number of vertebrae in the cervical spine.
In Proposition 5, an error was made in indicating the variability of the composition of the spine.
2. 1. In 1908 I.P. Pavlov discovered the phenomenon of phagocytosis, which underlies cellular immunity. 2. Immunity is the body's immunity to infections and foreign substances - antigens. 3. Immunity can be specific or non-specific. 4. Specific immunity is the body's response to the action of unknown foreign agents. 5. Nonspecific immunity provides protection against antigens familiar to the body. 6. Immunity can be carried out both by special cells - phagocytes, and antibodies - protein molecules contained in blood lymphocytes. |
Elements of the correct answer
Errors were made in sentences 1, 4, 5.
In sentence 1: remember who is responsible for the discovery of the phenomenon of phagocytosis.
In sentences 4 and 5: remember the meaning of the terms “specific” and “non-specific”.
3. Find errors in the text provided. Indicate the numbers of the sentences in which they are allowed, explain them. 1. In the first half of the XIX century. German scientists M. Schleiden and T. Schwann formulated the cellular theory. 2. However, Anthony van Leeuwenhoek, who described the microscopic structure of the cork tissue of a plant, is considered the ancestor of the cell theory. 3. The basic position of the cell theory of Schleiden and Schwann is the following: "All organisms - viruses, bacteria, fungi, plants and animals - are composed of cells." 4. Subsequently, Rudolf Virchow argued that "each new cell is formed by the budding of the mother cell." |
Elements of the correct answer
Errors were made in sentences 2, 3, 4.
In sentence 2, the name of the scientist is incorrect.
In proposal 3, the list of organisms with cellular structure.
In Proposition 4, R. Virchow's statement is reproduced with an error.
Elements of the correct answer
Errors were made in sentences 4, 5, 6.
Proposition 4 incorrectly describes the structure of the capillaries.
Proposition 5 incorrectly indicates substances coming from capillaries into tissues.
In Proposition 6, the substances that enter the capillaries from the tissues are incorrectly indicated.
Elements of the correct answer
Errors were made in sentences 3, 5, 6.
In Proposition 3, the endocrine glands are inaccurately named.
In sentence 5, the sign of the endocrine glands is incorrectly indicated.
In Proposition 6, a mistake was made in comparing the rates of nervous and humoral regulation.
Elements of the correct answer
Errors were made in sentences 2, 4, 6.
In Proposition 2, the division of the nervous system into parts is incorrectly indicated.
In sentence 4, pay attention to the muscles named in the sentence and their connection with the autonomic nervous system.
Proposition 6 incorrectly specifies the transmission mechanism nerve impulse.
Elements of the correct answer
Errors were made in sentences 3, 4, 5.
In sentence 3, pay attention to the indicated reason for the excitation of the respiratory center.
Sentence 4 erroneously indicates the number of groups of nerve cells in the respiratory center.
Proposition 5 gives an erroneous characteristic of the breathing apparatus.
Tasks in pictures
Elements of the correct answer
1. The upper layer of the skin is formed by the epidermis - the integumentary tissue.
2. Under the epidermis is the dermis, or the skin itself. It is formed by connective tissue.
3. In the dermis are scattered nerve cells - receptors, as well as muscles that raise the hair.
2. What is the process shown in the figure? Describe this process. |
Elements of the correct answer
1. The figure shows the stages of the development of a conditioned salivary reflex:
- the release of saliva when food is presented - an unconditional reflex reaction, the centers of digestion and salivation are excited;
- excitation of the visual center by the light of a lamp in the absence of food;
- the combination of feeding with the lighting of a light bulb, the formation of a temporary connection between the centers of vision, digestion and salivation;
- after multiple repetitions of the stage ( in) a conditioned salivary reflex is developed only to light.
2. Output: after a repeated combination of the actions of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, a conditioned reflex is developed to the action of the conditioned stimulus.
Elements of the correct answer
1. The figure shows the process of formation of lymph from blood and tissue fluid.
2. Number 1 denotes a capillary with blood cells and plasma.
3. Number 2 denotes a lymphatic capillary, which collects interstitial fluid.
Elements of the correct answer
The figure shows the blood vessels.
1. Arteries ( but) - elastic vessels carrying arterial blood from the heart. The muscular layer is well developed in the walls of the arteries.
2. Veins ( b) - elastic vessels, in the walls of which the muscle layer is less developed than in the walls of the arteries. Equipped with valves that prevent backflow of blood. They carry blood from organs to the heart.
3. Capillaries ( in) - vessels, the walls of which are formed by one layer of cells. They exchange gas between blood and tissues.
Elements of the correct answer
1. Scuba divers may develop decompression sickness, which is caused by the rapid release of nitrogen with a rapid decrease in pressure during ascent. Tissue may partially collapse, convulsions, paralysis, etc.
2. In climbers, breathing difficulties are associated with altitude sickness, which occurs as a result of low oxygen pressure in the atmosphere.
Answering this question, one should generalize knowledge about the structure and main functions. organic matter and then explain why their stocks need to be constantly replenished.
Elements of the correct answer
1. Organic substances have a complex structure and are constantly broken down in the process of metabolism.
2. Organic substances are sources of the body's building materials, as well as food and energy, which are necessary for the body's vital functions.
3. Since food and energy are constantly consumed, it is necessary to replenish their reserves, i.e. synthesize organic substances. In addition, the human body's own proteins are synthesized from the amino acids that enter the cells.
Answer yourself
Why do we need proteins in the human body?
Where does the human body get energy for its life?
What is the role of organic matter in the human body?
Elements of the correct answer
1. These tissues have a common feature - a well-developed intercellular substance.
2. These fabrics have a common origin. They develop from the mesoderm.
3. These tissues are referred to as connective tissues.
Answer yourself
Why are human organs usually formed by several types of tissues?
How can one explain that the nervous system of birds and humans develops from the same germ layers, and the systems themselves differ significantly from each other in the level of development?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Two systems are involved in the regulation of the activity of the human body: the nervous and the endocrine.
2. The nervous system provides reflex activity organism.
3. Humoral regulation is based on the action of hormones, the release of which into the blood is controlled by the nervous system.
Answer yourself
How are the nervous and endocrine systems functionally connected?
How is a relatively constant level of hormones in a person's blood maintained?
What are the differences between nervous and humoral regulation of the body?
Present the answer in the form of a table.
Elements of the correct answer
Elements of the correct answer
1. The medulla oblongata is the most ancient part of the brain.
2. Breathing, nutrition, reproduction appeared together with the emergence of the animal world, i.e. these are the most ancient functions of the body.
3. The cerebral cortex is a relatively young part of the brain. In higher animals, it controls all body functions, including those listed in the task.
Answer yourself
What is the role of the medulla oblongata in the regulation of human vital processes?
Where are the centers of unconditioned reflexes located?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Unconditioned reflexes - specific, conditioned - individual.
2. Unconditioned reflexes - congenital, conditioned - acquired.
3. Unconditioned reflexes are permanent, conditioned reflexes are temporary.
4. Unconditioned reflexes are controlled by the spinal cord and the brain stem, and conditioned reflexes are controlled by the cerebral cortex.
5. Unconditioned reflexes are caused by a certain stimulus, conditioned - by any.
Answer yourself
How are conditioned reflexes developed?
What are the main ideas of the teachings of I.P. Pavlova about conditioned reflexes?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Rays of light are reflected from an object.
2. The rays are focused by the lens and, having passed through the vitreous body, fall on the retina.
3. A real, reduced, inverted image of an object is formed on the retina.
4. Signals from the retina are transmitted along the optic nerve and reach the visual cortex.
5. The image of an object is analyzed in the visual area of the cerebral cortex and is perceived by a person in its real, non-inverted form.
Answer yourself
What is the generality of the principle of operation of analyzers?
Why with peripheral vision a person practically does not distinguish the colors of objects?
How does the vestibular apparatus work?
Elements of the correct answer
1. The second signaling system is associated with the appearance of a person's speech.
2. Speech allows you to communicate using symbols - words and other signs.
3. A word can be concrete, denoting a certain object or phenomenon, and abstract, reflecting the meaning of concepts, phenomena.
Answer yourself
What does a person mean with words?
How does the higher nervous activity of a person differ from the higher nervous activity animals?
What types of memory do you know and what are their functions?
Elements of the correct answer
1. No need to slouch, you need to walk keeping your head straight, straightening your shoulders.
2. Do not carry weights in only one hand.
3. When walking, do not lean back.
4. It is advisable to sit straight, not leaning on the back of a chair and not bending the spine.
Answer yourself
What anatomical and physiological consequences in the structure of the skeleton can lead to poor posture?
List the features of the skeleton associated with upright posture and work.
Elements of the correct answer
1. Violation of blood glucose levels can lead to serious illness.
2. A persistent rise in glucose levels can lead to diabetes mellitus, a disease that causes other diseases.
3. A decrease in glucose levels can lead to disturbances in the functioning of the brain, the cells of which need glucose.
Elements of the correct answer
1. Jenner can be considered the discoverer of the phenomenon of immunity. He was the first to get the smallpox vaccine.
2. Pasteur created vaccines against several infectious diseases: rabies, anthrax. I. Mechnikov worked in his laboratory.
3. Mechnikov discovered the phenomenon of phagocytosis. This discovery became the basis for the creation of the theory of immunity.
Answer yourself
What works of L. Pasteur had a great influence on the development of science and what is it?
Why are I. Mechnikov and L. Pasteur considered the founders of immunology?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Pavlov believes that there are food leftovers in your pockets, or your hands or clothes smell of food familiar to the dog. Consequently, gastric juice is secreted conditionally reflexively.
2. You can change clothes, wash your hands, brush your teeth again, and check to see if your dog will release stomach acid. If your results are confirmed, then you are right, if not, then Pavlov.
Answer yourself
Why do you think I.P. Pavlov was awarded the Nobel Prize for his study of digestion processes in animals?
What mechanisms and how is the activity of the human digestive system regulated?
Why is a person sick with an infectious disease injected with serum, and for preventive purposes, healthy people are vaccinated?
What biological problems stand in the way of organ and tissue transplant researchers?
In answering questions 13-15, you should think about the reasons for this or that process, which is referred to in the condition of the question. There is no need to describe the process itself in detail if it is not required. Having understood the meaning of the question, it is necessary to write about the factors that influence a specific process.
Elements of the correct answer
1. The blood type of the donor must be such that this blood can be transfused to the recipient.
2. The donor's blood must have the same Rh factor as the recipient's.
3. The donor must be healthy, his blood must not contain viruses (HIV, hepatitis viruses) and other pathogens of infectious diseases.
Answer yourself
The donor has a second Rh-positive blood group. Which recipients should not receive this blood transfusion?
How does HIV get infected? Why is it impossible to get infected by airborne droplets, through a handshake or food
ducts?
Elements of the correct answer
The following factors affect the movement of blood and lymph through the vessels.
1. Heart rate and strength.
2. The elasticity of the walls of blood vessels and their lumen.
3. Condition of valves in veins and lymphatic vessels.
4. Contractions of skeletal muscles.
Answer yourself
What are the functions of blood and lymph in the body and how is their fulfillment ensured?
How does the structure of the heart contribute to the performance of its functions?
15. What processes occur during inhalation and exhalation? |
Elements of the correct answer
1. When inhaling, the diaphragm is lowered, the intercostal muscles contract, the pressure in the pleural cavity decreases.
2. When you exhale, the diaphragm rises, the intercostal muscles relax, and the pressure in the pleural cavity increases.
3. When inhaling, air from the atmosphere enters the lungs, while exhaling - from the lungs into the atmosphere.
Answer yourself
What are the features of external, tissue and cellular respiration?
What are the structural features of the respiratory tract and circulatory system human breathing processes?
Elements of the correct answer
The answer to this question does not require exact knowledge of the chemical composition of gastric juice. Knowing what processes occur in the stomach, you can make a conclusion about the composition of gastric juice.
1. In the gastric juice there are enzymes that break down proteins.
2. The gastric juice contains a protective mucus secreted by the glands of the stomach.
3. It contains hydrochloric acid.
Answer yourself
What juices and enzymes provide for the digestion process in the human body?
What is the difference between the processes of digestion in different parts of the human digestive system?
What is the link between smoking and stomach ulcers?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Proteins are fairly strong organic molecules, the structure of which is stabilized by several types of bonds.
2. Proteins are broken down in the body last, after fats and carbohydrates.
3. When eating only protein food, the rate of energy supply necessary to maintain the vital activity of the human body will be insufficient.
4. For normal functioning, the human body needs a variety of substances. Not all of them can be synthesized in the human body from proteins.
5. Protein breakdown products are toxic to the body (eg urea). With an excess of protein food, the load on the excretory organs increases, which can lead to their disease.
Answer yourself
Why is protein starvation dangerous for humans?
What happens during dissimilation and assimilation? How are these processes related?
Remember which substances are filtered and which should not be filtered through the renal glomeruli and the capillaries of the convoluted tubules.
Elements of the correct answer
1. The presence of sugar in the urine.
2. The presence of proteins in the urine.
3. Increased content of erythrocytes and leukocytes.
Answer yourself
Is the formation of only primary urine sufficient for the normal functioning of the body? Argument your answer.
What happens in the human body if its kidneys cannot cope with their functions?
Elements of the correct answer
1. The placenta connects the body of the mother and the fetus.
2. Through the placenta, the fetus is supplied with all nutrients and oxygen.
3. The waste products of the fetus are removed through the placenta.
4. The placenta prevents immune incompatibility between mother and fetus.
Answer yourself
How is the metabolism of the fetus in the womb of the mother?
Why does man belong to the class of mammals?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Television and other media contribute to the idealization of bad inclinations: action films, TV shows in which the heroes drink and smoke are widespread.
2. Teens imitate their elders.
3. Ignorance, lack of hobbies, illiteracy contribute to the development of alcoholism and drug addiction.
Answer yourself
How is human health related to the level of culture in society? Confirm the answer with examples.
Explain possible reasons a person's dependence on addictions.
Evolutionary doctrine
Level C1 Questions
Elements of the correct answer
1. Evolutionary doctrine proclaimed the mutability of the organic world, which seriously shaken the idea of the creation of the world.
2. The creation of evolutionary teaching entailed new Scientific research in the field of cytology, genetics and selection, molecular biology, the results of which had a significant impact on the change in the worldview of people.
Answer yourself
Formulate the main provisions of the evolutionary teachings of Charles Darwin.
What were the differences in views on the evolutionary process of Zh.B. Lamarck and Charles Darwin?
What is the advantage of Darwin's theory over Lamarck's theory?
In what direction did Darwin's evolutionary teaching develop?
When answering the last question, you need to indicate only the main ideas. synthetic theory evolution, using such terms: mutations, forms of selection, isolation, directions of evolution.
Elements of the correct answer
1. All mutations take place on molecular level since affect DNA molecules, and therefore proteins.
2. Gene mutations lead to substitutions of nucleotides and the appearance of new proteins, and, consequently, new traits.
3. Meiosis and crossing over are also associated with the behavior and distribution of chromosomes.
Answer yourself
What is the relationship between mutagenesis and natural selection?
The genetic code is universal, and the differences between organisms are very significant. How can this be explained?
Did humans and mice have a common ancestor? Can you prove it?
Elements of the correct answer
Arguments for the theory of evolution:
- the very facts of the existence of changes in nature, the diversity of species and their changes in time, the adaptability of organisms to various environmental conditions indicate that evolution as a process of development exists;
- the struggle for existence, as a result of which the most adapted organisms survive, is observed at different levels: in the world of bacteria, plants, animals;
- there is also experimental evidence of evolution at different levels of life.
Arguments against the theory of evolution:
- there is no sufficiently reliable evidence of the transformation of one species into another;
- paleontologists often do not find transitional forms of animals and plants, which is used as an argument by opponents of evolutionary doctrine.
Answer yourself
What are the most important morphological evidence of evolution and explain their significance.
What is the significance and lack of paleontological evidence for evolution?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Several factors affect the population size: climate and others abiotic factors environment, food availability, the number of predators, epidemics.
2. The number can be influenced by such factors as the migration of individuals, the number of mature individuals in the population.
Answer yourself
What factors influence the preservation of the population size?
What causes reproductive isolation of populations?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Natural selection is at work among disease vectors.
2. The most resistant organisms due to adaptive mutations survive and adapt to various means of fighting them.
Answer yourself
What are the similarities and differences between natural and artificial selection?
What are the similarities and differences between the stabilizing and driving forms of natural selection?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Religious communities most often exist separately and closely related marriages are common in them.
2. Relative marriages lead to increased homozygosity in the offspring.
3. Recessive mutations, usually in a heterozygous state, become homozygous, which leads to the manifestation of hereditary diseases.
Answer yourself
Why are closely related marriages harmful?
Why do breeders use closely related crossbreeding of plants and animals?
Elements of the correct answer
1. The first way is to conduct a cytological analysis of the karyotypes of these elephants by comparing the number and shape of chromosomes.
2. Genetic analysis can be performed by comparing gene sequences.
3. Purchase a pair of elephants and find out if they will produce fertile offspring in captivity. But this is a long and expensive journey.
Elements of the correct answer
1. Most likely, non-poisonous and slightly poisonous plants are outwardly similar to poisonous ones.
2. In this case, the animals eat all the plants evenly, and some of the animals die, the number of eaters decreases, and the plants survive and multiply.
3. Another option is that animals will develop a conditioned reflex, and in general (except for young ones) they will not eat these plants. In this case, all plants are preserved.
Elements of the correct answer
1. Examples related to the intraspecific struggle for existence: not all individuals reach spawning grounds; not all eggs are fertilized by males; when moving to the spawning grounds, the fish “kill” each other; many fry die before reaching maturity.
2. Examples of interspecies struggle for existence: chum salmon - an object of fishing; people catch fish for caviar; roe is eaten by other fish as food.
3. A large number of eggs is an adaptation to the survival of the species in the absence of care for the offspring.
Answer yourself
Give examples of the fight against environmental conditions in fish that lay millions of eggs, and out of this million less than a dozen individuals survive.
Which of the types of struggle for existence is the most fierce? Explain the answer.
What factors limit the reproduction of organisms in nature?
Elements of the correct answer
1. The fertility of cod is higher than that of stickleback or seahorse.
2. Male sticklebacks (and seahorses) guard their offspring.
3. Approximately the same number of individuals of both one and the other species usually survive to maturity.
Answer yourself
Which plants produce more pollen: wind-pollinated or insect-pollinated, and why?
What is the relativity of adaptations to environmental conditions?
The hoverfly looks like a bee. What signs should have appeared in this fly so that it would not be touched by enemies?
Who should be more in nature - animals with mimicry, or those whom they imitate, and why?
Elements of the correct answer
You need to use the most accurate type criterion.
1. Calculate the number of chromosomes in somatic cells, and if it is the same, then with the maximum probability it can be argued that this is one species.
2. You can try to get offspring from these individuals, which in turn should be fertile. This path is longer, but also quite reliable.
Answer yourself
Why is there not a single sufficiently reliable species criterion?
Which species criteria are relatively reliable and why?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Mutations.
2. Insulation.
3. Different directions of natural selection.
Answer yourself
Why are mutational variability, isolation, and natural selection named as major factors in the evolutionary process?
Can previously isolated populations be encountered?
What are the main features of the population?
What factors prevent mixing of populations?
Elements of the correct answer
Answer yourself
Does degeneration always lead to biological regression? Explain the answer.
What happens more often and why: aromorphosis, idioadaptation or degeneration?
What is the result of aromorphoses, idiodaptations, degeneration?
Elements of the correct answer
1. The slate bones of a horse are the rudiments of the 2nd and 4th toes.
2. A tail in humans is an atavism, a trait inherited from ancestors, usually absent.
Answer yourself
15. Why are the theories that the genetic differences between races of people confirm their inequality are untenable?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Genetic differences between races are negligible, much less than even between very closely related species.
2. Interracial marriages produce fertile offspring, which is the most reliable sign of belonging to the same species.
Answer yourself
Level C2 Questions
1. Find errors in the text provided. Indicate the numbers of the sentences in which they are allowed, explain them. 1. At present, the theory of evolution has been developed, created by C. Darwin and J. Lamarck independently of each other. 2. All living things are characterized by variability, which Darwin divided into hereditary and non-hereditary. 3. Non-hereditary variability matters for evolution, since it depends on environmental conditions and allows organisms to change quickly enough. 4. The emerging trait is preserved or eliminated by natural selection. 5. Natural selection is based on the struggle for existence between the strongest individuals. 6. Thus, according to Darwin, the driving forces of evolution are non-hereditary variability and natural selection. |
Elements of the correct answer
Errors were made in sentences 1, 3, 5, 6.
In Proposition 1, one of the named scientists is not the author of the ideas that formed the basis of modern evolutionary doctrine.
In Proposition 3, the type of variability is incorrectly named.
In Proposition 5, the participants in the struggle for existence are incorrectly identified.
Proposition 6 incorrectly named one of the driving forces of evolution.
2. Find errors in the text provided. Indicate the numbers of the sentences in which they are allowed, explain them. 1. Academician I.I. Schmalhausen distinguished two forms of natural selection: driving and stabilizing. 2. Driving selection is manifested in stable conditions of existence of the species. 3. Stabilizing selection acts in changing environmental conditions. 4. An example of driving selection is the massive distribution of the dark-colored birch moth moth in the industrial regions of England. 5. An example of a stabilizing form of selection is the emergence of populations of insects resistant to poisons, bacteria resistant to antibiotics. 6. As a result of stabilizing selection, the so-called average values of the characteristic are selected. |
Elements of the correct answer
Errors were made in sentences 2, 3, 5.
In Proposition 2, the attribute of the driving form of selection is incorrectly indicated.
In Proposition 3, the attribute of the stabilizing form of selection is incorrectly indicated.
Proposition 5 unsuccessfully gives an example of a stabilizing form of selection.
Elements of the correct answer
Errors were made in sentences 2, 4, 5.
In Proposition 2, one of the signs of the morphological criterion is indicated incorrectly.
In Proposition 4, the sign of the ecological criterion is indicated incorrectly.
In Proposition 5, the attribute of the ethological criterion is indicated incorrectly.
Elements of the correct answer
Errors were made in sentences 1, 3, 6.
In Proposition 1, the definition of a population is incorrect.
In Proposition 3, the set of genes of the population is incorrectly defined.
In Proposition 6, the population is erroneously called the largest evolutionary unit.
Level C3 Questions
Elements of the correct answer
Answer yourself
What is the evolutionary significance of changes such as photosynthesis in plants or notochord in animals?
Compare the evolutionary significance of changes such as the emergence of mimicry in insects and the disappearance of the digestive system in worms.
Give examples of idioadaptations that show that, thanks to them, closely related species can live in different conditions Wednesday.
Elements of the correct answer
1. Intraspecific struggle (competition) is the most fierce type of struggle for existence, because goes for the same resources.
2. Interspecific struggle is exacerbated in one ecological niche and can lead to the displacement of one species by another. This does not happen in different habitats of the two species.
3. The fight against unfavorable environmental conditions enhances both intraspecific and interspecific competition.
Answer yourself
Give examples of the intraspecific struggle for existence, which would prove its fierceness.
Give examples of the interspecies struggle for existence and explain its significance for the species and individual.
3. Compare the effects of natural and artificial selection. |
Elements of the correct answer
1. Both forms of selection reinforce certain hereditary traits.
2. Natural selection fixes traits that are useful primarily to the species, artificial - traits that are useful to humans.
3. The material for both forms of selection are mutations that manifest themselves phenotypically.
4. The result of natural selection is organisms adapted to the conditions of the habitat, and the result of artificial selection is
breeds and varieties with traits useful to humans, often incapable of surviving in natural conditions.
Answer yourself
What are the advantages and disadvantages of plant varieties bred by breeders?
What biological factors does the breeder use when developing a new plant variety or animal breed?
Elements of the correct answer
1. The farmer receiving heterotic forms wins.
2. The first farmer receives new combinations, but a rapid increase in yield cannot be achieved with his breeding methods. Careful selection and subsequent selection is needed. He cannot repeat the cycle, because gets heterozygous forms, not pure lines.
3. The third farmer, like the first, also will not receive quick results... In addition, it has fewer options for combinations of features for selection.
Answer yourself
Why did heterotic maize provide economic success for American farmers?
What are the benefits of polyploid hybrids?
Bukhvalov V. Biological tasks and problems. - Riga, 1994.
Kamensky A.A., Sokolova N.A., Titov S.A. Biology. Textbook for applicants to universities. - M .: University Book House, 1999.
Preparing for the exam in biology / Ed. prof. A.S. Batueva. - M .: Iris press - Rolf, 1998.
Kalinova G.S., Myagkova A.N., Reznikova V.Z. Biology. Educational and training materials to prepare for the exam. 2004-2008.
Levitin M.G., Levitina T.P. General biology. - SPb .: Parity, 1999.
Lerner G.I. Biology. USE 2007-2008. Training tasks... - M .: EKSMO, 2008.
Lerner G.I. Biology. Workbooks 6-8, 10-11 grades. - M .: EKSMO, 2007.
Mash R.D. Optional classes in human anatomy and physiology. - M .: Education, 1998.
Reznikova V.Z. Biology. Man and his health. Collection of tests for thematic control. - M .: Intellect-center, 2005.
This handbook contains all the theoretical material on the course of biology necessary for passing the exam. It includes all the elements of the content checked by control and measuring materials, and helps to generalize and systematize knowledge and skills for the course of secondary (full) school.
The theoretical material is presented in a concise, accessible form. Each section is accompanied by examples of test items to test your knowledge and degree of preparation for the certification exam. Practical assignments correspond to the format of the Unified State Exam. At the end of the manual, there are answers to tests that will help students and applicants test themselves and fill in the gaps.
The manual is addressed to schoolchildren, applicants and teachers.
Examples.
Embryology studies
1) development of the organism from zygote to birth
2) the structure and function of the egg
3) postpartum human development
4) development of the body from birth to death
Breeding as a science solves problems
1) creation of new varieties of plants and animal breeds
2) preservation of the biosphere
3) creating agrocenoses
4) creating new fertilizers
Taxonomy is the science of
1) the study of the external structure of organisms
2) the study of body functions
3) identifying connections between organisms
4) the classification of organisms.
n1.doc
Georgy Isaakovich Lerner
Biology. A complete guide to prepare for the exam
"BIOLOGY: Complete reference to prepare for the exam / G.I. LERNER ": AST, Astrel; Moscow; 2009
ISBN 978-5-17-060750-1, 978-5-271-24452-0
annotation
This handbook contains all the theoretical material on the course of biology necessary for passing the exam. It includes all the elements of the content checked by control and measuring materials, and helps to generalize and systematize knowledge and skills for the course of secondary (full) school.
The theoretical material is presented in a concise, accessible form. Each section is accompanied by examples of test items to test your knowledge and degree of preparation for the certification exam. Practical assignments correspond to the format of the Unified State Exam. At the end of the manual, there are answers to tests that will help students and applicants test themselves and fill in the gaps.
The manual is addressed to schoolchildren, applicants and teachers.
G.I. Lerner
Biology
A complete guide to prepare for the exam
From the author
Single State exam- this is new form certification, which has become mandatory for graduates high school... Preparation for the exam requires students to develop certain skills in answering the proposed questions and skills in filling out examination forms.
This comprehensive biology guide provides all the materials you need to prepare for the exam well.
1. The book includes theoretical knowledge of the basic, advanced and high levels of knowledge and skills tested in examination papers.
3. The methodological apparatus of the book (examples of tasks) is focused on testing the knowledge and certain skills of students in applying this knowledge both in familiar and in new situations.
4. The most difficult questions, the answers to which cause difficulties for students, are analyzed and discussed in order to help students cope with them.
5. Sequence of presentation teaching material begin with " General biology", Because the content of all other courses in the examination work is based on general biological concepts.
At the beginning of each section, the CMMs for that section of the course are cited.
Then the theoretical content of the topic is presented. After that, examples of test items of all forms (in different proportions) encountered in the examination work are offered. Particular attention should be paid to terms and concepts that are in italics. They are, first of all, checked in examination papers.
In a number of cases, the most difficult issues are analyzed and approaches to their solution are proposed. Answers to Part C provide only elements of correct answers that will allow you to clarify information, supplement it, or provide other reasons for your answer. In all cases, these answers are sufficient to pass the exam.
The proposed tutorial in biology is addressed primarily to schoolchildren who decide to take the unified state exam in biology, as well as to teachers. At the same time, the book will be useful to all schoolchildren. comprehensive school since will allow not only to study the subject within school curriculum but also systematically check its assimilation.
Section 1
Biology is the science of life
1.1. Biology as a science, its achievements, research methods, connections with other sciences. The role of biology in human life and practice
Terms and concepts tested in the examination papers for this section: hypothesis, research method, science, scientific fact, object of research, problem, theory, experiment.
Biology- a science that studies the properties of living systems. However, it is rather difficult to define what a living system is. That is why scientists have established several criteria by which an organism can be classified as living. The main of these criteria are metabolism or metabolism, self-reproduction and self-regulation. A separate chapter will be devoted to the discussion of these and other criteria (or) properties of living things.
Concept the science is defined as "the sphere of human activity to obtain, systematize objective knowledge about reality." In accordance with this definition, the object of science - biology is a life in all its manifestations and forms, as well as in different levels .
Each science, including biology, uses certain methods research. Some of them are universal for all sciences, for example, such as observation, putting forward and testing hypotheses, building theories. Other scientific methods can only be used by a specific science. For example, geneticists have a genealogical method for studying human genealogies, breeders have a hybridization method, histologists have a tissue culture method, etc.
Biology is closely related to other sciences - chemistry, physics, ecology, geography. Biology itself is divided into many special sciences that study various biological objects: plant and animal biology, plant physiology, morphology, genetics, taxonomy, selection, mycology, helminthology and many other sciences.
Method- this is the path of research that a scientist goes through when solving any scientific problem or problem.
The main methods of science include the following:
Modeling- a method in which a certain image of an object is created, a model with the help of which scientists obtain the necessary information about the object. For example, when establishing the structure of the DNA molecule, James Watson and Francis Crick created a model from plastic elements - a double helix of DNA that corresponds to the data of X-ray and biochemical studies. This model fully met the requirements for DNA. ( See the Nucleic Acids section.)
Observation- the method by which the researcher collects information about the object. You can observe visually, for example, the behavior of animals. It is possible to observe with the help of devices the changes occurring in living objects: for example, when taking a cardiogram during the day, when measuring the weight of a calf during a month. You can observe seasonal changes in nature, the molting of animals, etc. The conclusions drawn by the observer are verified either by repeated observations or experimentally.
Experiment (experience)- the method by which the results of observations are checked, the assumptions made - hypotheses ... Examples of experiments are the crossing of animals or plants in order to obtain a new variety or breed, testing a new drug, identifying the role of a cell organoid, etc. An experiment is always the acquisition of new knowledge with the help of the given experience.
Problem- a question, a task to be solved. Solving the problem leads to the acquisition of new knowledge. A scientific problem always hides some kind of contradiction between the known and the unknown. Solving the problem requires a scientist to collect facts, analyze them, and systematize them. An example of a problem is, for example, "How does the adaptation of organisms to the environment arise?" or "How can you prepare for serious exams as soon as possible?"
It can be quite difficult to formulate a problem, but whenever there is a difficulty, a contradiction, a problem appears.
Hypothesis- an assumption, a preliminary solution to the problem posed. Putting hypotheses, the researcher looks for the relationship between facts, phenomena, processes. That is why a hypothesis often takes the form of an assumption: "if ... then." For example, “If plants in the light emit oxygen, then we can detect it with the help of a smoldering torch, because oxygen must support combustion. " The hypothesis is verified experimentally. (See the section Hypotheses of the origin of life on Earth.)
Theory Is a generalization of the main ideas in any scientific field of knowledge. For example, the theory of evolution summarizes all the reliable scientific data obtained by researchers over many decades. Over time, theories are supplemented with new data and developed. Some theories can be refuted by new facts. Correct scientific theories are confirmed by practice. So, for example, the genetic theory of G. Mendel and chromosome theory T. Morgana confirmed by many experimental research in different countries the world. Modern evolutionary theory although she has found a lot of scientifically proven evidence, she still meets opponents, tk. not all of its provisions can be the present stage to confirm the development of science with facts.
By private scientific methods in biology are:
Genealogical method - it is used in compiling pedigrees of people, identifying the nature of the inheritance of some traits.
Historical method - the establishment of relationships between facts, processes, phenomena that have occurred over a historically long time (several billion years). Evolutionary teaching has developed largely thanks to this method.
Paleontological method - a method that allows you to find out the relationship between ancient organisms, the remains of which are in earth crust, in different geological layers.
Centrifugation - separation of mixtures into component parts under the action of centrifugal force. It is used in the separation of cell organelles, light and heavy fractions (constituents) of organic substances, etc.
Cytological, or cytogenetic , - study of the structure of the cell, its structures using various microscopes.
Biochemical - study of chemical processes in the body.
Each private biological science (botany, zoology, anatomy and physiology, cytology, embryology, genetics, selection, ecology, and others) uses its own more specific research methods.
Each science has its own an object, and your subject of research. In biology, the object of research is LIFE. The carriers of life are living bodies. Everything related to their existence is studied by biology. The subject of the study of science is always somewhat narrower, more limited than the object. So, for example, some of the scientists are interested in metabolism organisms. Then the object of study will be life, and the subject of study is metabolism. On the other hand, metabolism can also be an object of research, but then the subject of research will be one of its characteristics, for example, the metabolism of proteins, or fats, or carbohydrates. This is important to understand because questions about what is the object of research of a particular science are found in examination questions. In addition, it is important for those who will be engaged in science in the future.
EXAMPLES OF TASKS
Part A
A1. Biology as a science studies
1) general signs of the structure of plants and animals
2) the relationship between living and inanimate nature
3) processes occurring in living systems
4) the origin of life on Earth
A2. I.P. Pavlov, in his works on digestion, used the research method:
1) historical 3) experimental
2) descriptive 4) biochemical
A3. Charles Darwin's assumption that each modern look or groups of species had common ancestors - these are:
1) theory 3) fact
2) hypothesis 4) proof
A4. Embryology studies
1) development of the organism from zygote to birth
2) the structure and function of the egg
3) postpartum human development
4) development of the body from birth to death
A5. The number and shape of chromosomes in the cell is established by the research method
1) biochemical 3) centrifugation
2) cytological 4) comparative
A6. Breeding as a science solves problems
1) creation of new varieties of plants and animal breeds
2) preservation of the biosphere
3) creating agrocenoses
4) creating new fertilizers
A7. The patterns of inheritance of traits in humans are established by the method
1) experimental 3) genealogical
2) hybridological 4) observation
A8. The specialty of a scientist studying the fine structures of chromosomes is called:
1) breeder 3) morphologist
2) cytogeneticist 4) embryologist
A9. Taxonomy is the science of
1) the study of the external structure of organisms
2) the study of body functions
3) identifying connections between organisms
4) classification of organisms
Part B
IN 1. List three functions that modern cell theory performs
1) Experimentally confirms scientific data on the structure of organisms
2) Predicts the emergence of new facts, phenomena
3) Describes the cellular structure of different organisms
4) Systematizes, analyzes and explains new facts about the cellular structure of organisms
5) Put forward hypotheses about the cellular structure of all organisms
6) Creates new methods of cell research
Part C
C1. French scientist Louis Pasteur became famous as the "savior of humanity", thanks to the creation of vaccines against infectious diseases, including rabies, anthrax and others. Suggest hypotheses that he could put forward. Which of the research methods did he prove that he was right?
1.2. Signs and properties of living things: cellular structure, chemical composition, metabolism and energy conversion, homeostasis, irritability, reproduction, development
Basic terms and concepts tested in the examination paper: homeostasis, the unity of animate and inanimate nature, variability, heredity, metabolism.
Signs and properties of living... Living systems have common features:
– cellular structure ... All organisms on Earth are made up of cells. An exception is viruses that exhibit the properties of living things only in other organisms.
Metabolism - a set of biochemical transformations occurring in the body and other biosystems.
Self-regulation - maintaining the constancy of the internal environment of the body (homeostasis). Persistent violation of homeostasis leads to the death of the organism.
Irritability - the body's ability to respond to external and internal stimuli (reflexes in animals and tropisms, taxis and nastia in plants).
Variability - the ability of organisms to acquire new signs and properties as a result of the influence of the external environment and changes in the hereditary apparatus - DNA molecules.
Heredity - the ability of the body to transmit its characteristics from generation to generation.
Reproduction or self-reproduction - the ability of living systems to reproduce their own kind. Reproduction is based on the process of doubling DNA molecules with subsequent cell division.
Growth and development - all organisms grow during their life; development is understood as both the individual development of an organism and the historical development of living nature.
System openness - the property of all living systems associated with the constant supply of energy from the outside and the removal of waste products. In other words, the body is alive as long as there is an exchange of substances and energy with the environment.
Ability to adapt - in the process historical development and under the influence of natural selection, organisms acquire adaptations to environmental conditions (adaptations). Organisms that do not have the necessary adaptations are dying out.
Common chemical composition ... The main features of the chemical composition of a cell and a multicellular organism are carbon compounds - proteins, fats, carbohydrates, nucleic acids... In inanimate nature, these compounds are not formed.
The commonality of the chemical composition of living systems and inanimate nature speaks of the unity and connection of living and inanimate matter. The whole world is a system based on individual atoms. Atoms interact with each other to form molecules. Crystals are formed from molecules in nonliving systems rocks, stars, planets, the universe. Living systems are formed from the molecules that make up organisms - cells, tissues, organisms. The relationship between living and nonliving systems is clearly manifested at the level of biogeocenoses and biosphere.
1.3. The main levels of organization of living nature: cellular, organismic, population-specific, biogeocenotic
The main terms and concepts tested in the examination papers: standard of living, biological systems studied at this level, molecular-genetic, cellular, organismic, population-specific, biogeocenotic, biospheric.
Organization levels living systems reflect the subordination, hierarchy of the structural organization of life. Living standards differ from each other in the complexity of the organization of the system. The structure of the cell is simpler than that of a multicellular organism or population.
The standard of living is the form and the way of its existence. For example, a virus exists in the form of a DNA or RNA molecule enclosed in a protein envelope. This is a form of virus existence. However, the virus exhibits the properties of a living system only when it enters the cell of another organism. There he multiplies. This is his way of being.
Molecular genetic level represented by individual biopolymers (DNA, RNA, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and other compounds); at this level of life, phenomena associated with changes (mutations) and reproduction of genetic material, metabolism are studied.
Cellular - the level at which life exists in the form of a cell - a structural and functional unit of life. At this level, processes such as metabolism and energy, information exchange, reproduction, photosynthesis, transmission of nerve impulses, and many others are studied.
Organic - This is the independent existence of a separate individual - a unicellular or multicellular organism.
Population-specific - the level that is represented by a group of individuals of the same species - a population; it is in the population that elementary evolutionary processes take place - the accumulation, manifestation and selection of mutations.
Biogeocenotic - represented by ecosystems consisting of different populations and their habitats.
Biosphere - the level representing the totality of all biogeocenoses. In the biosphere, there is a circulation of substances and the transformation of energy with the participation of organisms. The waste products of organisms are involved in the evolution of the Earth.
EXAMPLES OF TASKS
Part A
A1. The level at which the processes of biogenic migration of atoms are studied is called:
1) biogeocenotic
2) biosphere
3) population-specific
4) molecular genetic
A2. At the population-species level, they study:
1) gene mutations
2) the relationship of organisms of the same species
3) organ systems
4) metabolic processes in the body
A3. Maintaining the relative constancy of the chemical composition of the body is called
1) metabolism 3) homeostasis
2) assimilation 4) adaptation
A4. The occurrence of mutations is associated with such a property of the organism as
1) heredity 3) irritability
2) variability 4) self-reproduction
A5. Which of the listed biological systems forms the most high level life?
1) amoeba cage 3) a herd of deer
2) smallpox virus 4) nature reserve
A6. Lifting your hand away from a hot object is an example
1) irritability
2) the ability to adapt
3) inheritance of traits from parents
4) self-regulation
A7. Photosynthesis, protein biosynthesis are examples
1) plastic metabolism
2) energy metabolism
3) nutrition and respiration
4) homeostasis
A8. Which of the terms is synonymous with the concept of "metabolism"?
1) anabolism 3) assimilation
2) catabolism 4) metabolism
Part B
IN 1. Select the processes studied at the molecular genetic level of life
1) DNA replication
2) inheritance of Down's disease
3) enzymatic reactions
4) the structure of mitochondria
5) the structure of the cell membrane
6) blood circulation
AT 2. Correlate the nature of adaptation of organisms with the conditions to which they were developed 
Part C
C1. What adaptations of plants provide them with reproduction and dispersal?
C2. What is common and what are the differences between different levels of organization of life?
