Westphalian treaty. Coursework: Westphalian World

In the mid-40s, opponents entered into negotiations, ended in 1648 by the signing of a peace treaty in the cities of Osnabruck and Münster in Westphalia, one of the German states. Therefore, it is called Westphalian 1.

The Westphalian world secured the territorial changes that occurred in Europe during the thirty-year war. They were quite modest. In any case, they did not go to any comparison with the duration and scale of war, the efforts of governments and victims of peoples. The largest is territorial changes happened in northern Germany. Sweden received extensive lands in the mouths of the largest rivers flowing into the Baltic and North Sea, such as Oder and Elba (Eastern Prussia and Kurlydia, the ports of which she had previously controlled, could not save the Swedes). As a result, Sweden closely approached the goal of the foreign policy of its ruling circles - the transformation of the Baltic Sea to the Swedish Lake. France in the Westphalian Treaty somewhat expanded its possessions on the left bank of the Rhine. She achieved recognition of his rights to the fortress of Metz, Tul and Verdin in Lorraine, captured by her back in 1552. In addition, she joined small territories in Alsace, who previously belonged to Habsburgs. Due to those confiscated at the church (secularized) possessions expanded, sometimes significantly, some German states, especially Protestant - Brandenburg, Saxony, Brown-Svege, etc.

The meaning of the Westphalian world was primarily in that he established new rules in relations between states. In a new international manner, they found

1 In Osnabryuk, negotiations were held between the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies, on the one hand, and Sweden with the Allies - on the other, and in Münster - between the emperor with the allies, on the one hand, and France with the Allies, on the other.

the contradictions that led to the thirty-year war. The Westphalian world was equalized in the rights of Catholics and Protestants (Calvinists and Lutheran). He legalized the confiscation of church lands, carried out until 1624, and overturned the previously active principle of "whose power is - that and faith." The German princes were deprived of the right to determine the faith of their subjects. Instead, it was proclaimed the principle of violence, in accordance with which Christians of any religion could freely send their cult in any part of the empire. Thus, the Westphalian world summed up under more than century "by the period of religious wars and created the prerequisites for the weakening of religious hostility in Europe. As a result, the importance of a confessional factor in relations between states has decreased. This in turn led to the known deideologicalization of international relations: instead of abstract ideas and the values \u200b\u200bto which supporters of each of the creeds appealed, the basis of the foreign policy of the states were given specific interests.

The Westphalian world put the cross on the desire of Habsburg to subjugate other countries and the peoples of Western Europe. Such claims kept the emperor Karl V in the first half of the XVI century. Not alien to this desire was Ferdinand II, who unleashed thirty-year-old war. The peace treaty reaffirmed the principle of the "original German freedom", adopted in the Middle Ages in the relationship between the emperor and the individual German princes of the Empire. Moreover, it significantly expanded the framework of the "freedom", which was used by the princes. Previously, they were independent only in domestic politics. Now they have gained wide independence and in the field of foreign policy. Princes received the right to maintain a variety of relations with foreign states with the only limitation - it was forbidden to conclude hostile empires of the Union and lead against it. Thus, an important step was made to the weakening of political connections within the Sacred Roman Empire and the acquisition of actual independence by individual states in its composition.

The Westphalian world significantly undermined the authority of the imperors of the Sacred Roman Empire. Previously, the emperor was considered the eldest rank among monarchs. He, as it were, walked the pyramid of power in Europe. All other monarchs are kings, dukes, graphs, princes (including the Grand Duke Moskovsky) - stood as it were to the lower steps of the feudal staircase. The Westphalian world equalized the rights of the independent states of Europe, which had the title of King, with the emperor. All of them

regardless of the title, they were recognized by carriers of the highest (sovereign) power, the main sign of which was the independence and power of their states. Thus, the Westphalian world inflicted a sensitive blow to the residues of the Middle Ages, which remained in relations between states.

According to the Westphalian world, Spain recognized the independence of the Republic of the United Provinces (Holland). This state that arose as a result of the uprising of the North-Netherlands-Sky Protestants against the domination of Catholic Spain was achieved in 1648 international legal recognition. In addition to Holland, the international legal recognition as an independent state also received the Swiss Confederation, which arose in 1315 during the struggle of rural and urban communities located in the Alps Alps, against German, French and Italian feudalists. The recognition of the independence of both states was of great importance. They were recognized as sovereign states on a par with monarchies, despite the fact that they were republics. This was a gap with the traditions of the Middle Ages, when the republic was considered third-rate states. It is especially important that the international legal recognition received states that arose not by dynastic reasons, not at the request of the monarchs, but by the will of citizens themselves. After all, Holland and Switzerland arose as a result of the uprising and long struggle of their citizens for freedom and independence. Satisfying their requirements, European monarchs actually allowed the possibility of recognizing the right of peoples to self-determination.

The winners in the thirty-year war - the countries of the Antihabssburg Coalition, thus obtained significant territorial and political advantages. France and Sweden have particularly strengthened their international positions (Sweden even became a member of the empire with the right to send their delegates to the Imperial Congress - Reichstag). Both states were declared the guarantors of the implementation of the Westphalian peace treaty. Together with them, among the guarantors of the implementation of the Westphalian world, both the Russian state was called, formally in the thirty-year war, which did not participate and the peace treaty did not conclude. This testified to the growth of its international influence and recognition by other European states its equal partner.

However, the defeat of the Habsburgs and the victory of the Antihabssburg Coalition did not lead to the establishment of hegemony in Europe, or domination, some other country or group of countries. As a result of the thirty-year war and the Westphalian world, a certain balance has developed, or the balance between

the largest states of that time in which none of them had a decisive advantage over others. Therefore, the balance of power began to play a stabilizing role in international relations. He practically deprived the governments of countries who conducted an aggressive foreign policy, hopes for an ambulance and easy victory in the Constress War. And although the balance of forces does not save Europe from new wars, he was an important prerequisite for the preservation of independence and independence of European states, thereby providing favorable external conditions for their development.

At the same time, the Westphalian world was an important stage in the development of international law, i.e. generally accepted customs, norms and rules in relations between states. The world signed, and therefore, they pledged the majority of European countries, including the largest and powerful of them. This did not guarantee the peoples of Europe of the cloudless future. However, the presence of clear generally accepted standards of law was allowed in the event of a war to establish the measure of the responsibility of individual states and facilitated the search for the world.

The norms of law adopted in relations between states themselves have changed. In the Middle Ages, monarchs were played by the main role in international relations with the special bonds of feudal dependence and seniority as señoras and vassals. According to the norms established by the Westphalian world, this role has passed to sovereign states. So they began to call independent and equal states, conducted independent external and internal politician In accordance with its public interest. The Westphalian world served as an initial point for all later international treaties up to the French revolution of the late XVIII century.

The Westphalian world signed most of the participants in the war, except France and Spain. They continued to fight for domination in the Southern Netherlands until 1659, when the so-called Pyrenean world was concluded, according to which France received a number of border areas in Pyrenees (Rusillon) and in the Netherlands (artoi). The Pyrenean World also provided for the marriage of the French King Louis XIV with Spanish Infanta Maria Teresia. According to Spanish law, the right to the crown belonged not only to the daughter of the king, but also her husband. Therefore, Spain demanded that Maria Tereresia renounced the right of inheritance of any possessions of the Spanish crown. The French who dreamed of Spanish inheritance agreed with this requirement, but with one condition. For the reality of Mary-Terezia's renunciation

dimo was to pay dowry infants in the amount of 500 thousand Spanish crowns in three adhesives in strictly designated deadlines, including on the day of marriage. Since the payment did not take place on the day of marriage, the French received an excuse for claims to the Spanish crown in the future.

3. Trade and colonial rivalry

As a result of the victory of England over the "invincible Armada" in 1588. Spain and Portugal (we recall, at that time they constituted one state) lost their trade and colonial monopoly. This led to a sharp strengthening of colonial expansion of other countries, primarily England and Holland. As a result of the liberation war of the end of the XVI century. Holland became an independent state, whose policy was aimed at encouraging trade and navigation, to increase his role as the largest center of world trade and global finances. In England in the middle

XVII century A revolution occurred, which also led political forces to power, speaking for active trade and colonial expansion.

The main objects of the colonial expansion of both states were North America and South Asia. Spaniards, still in the XVI century. Separating Central and South America from the Gulf of Mexico and Rio Grande to La fees, did not show much interest in the lands lying north of the Florida Peninsula. Therefore, at the end of the XVI - early XVII century. The discovers, colonializers from other European countries, mainly from Holland, England and France, rushed here. At the beginning of the XVII century. The first English colonies arose at the Atlantic Coast of North America (Virginia in 1607, New England in 1620, etc.), on the Islands of the Caribbean Sea (Saint Kitts in 1623, Barbados in 1625). Gradually, the colonial holdings of small European states were absorbed by the British and the French. By top

The XVIII century, the British managed to colize the northeast coast of America from Newfoundland Island in the north to the Florida Peninsula in the south. The French managed to capture the Valley of the River St. Lawrence, the basins of the Great American lakes, as well as the Mississippi River.

At the beginning of the XVII century. Colonializers from other countries, mainly from Holland, have penetrated into India. The Dutch managed to establish control over the sea from Europe to South Asia, founding a cap of the colony in southern Africa. They selected a number of colonies in India from Portuguese, including Ceylon Island (in 1640). In addition, they founded in the first

half XVII century. A number of colonies in Southeast Asia. Following the Dutch in India came the British. In the first half of the XVII century. They captured several cities on the east coast of the Industan Peninsula (Surat in 1612, Nellur in 1619, Madras in 1639, etc.). And with the second half XVII in. India is beginning to actively master and the French. At the same time, the methods of the colonial policy of the British, the Dutch and the French were similar. Its main tool was the monopoly East Indian companies (English formed in 1600, Dutch - in 1602, French - in 1664), which received from their governments the exclusive right to trade, navigation, construction of fortresses, management, conquest of territories, etc. In colonies.

All this served as a prerequisite for the sharp exacerbation of the colonial rivalry of England, Holland and France in the second half of the XVII century. Initially the most acute colonial and trade contradictions between England and Holland. In 1651, the English Parliament adopted the so-called navigation act - the law, in accordance with which foreign goods could be imported into England only on ships under the English flag or under the flag of the exporter country. This law inflicted tangible damage to Holland, which at that time was the main maritime carrier. As a result, in 1652, the first trade (or maritime) war between England and Holland broke out, which lasted until 1654 followed by the other two - 1665-1667 and 1672-1674 years.

However, by the end of the XVII century. The colonial and trade contradictions of these two powers were moved to the fore, which mainly in the board of Louis XIV turned into a large marine and colonial power. Back in the first half of the XVII century. The French founded several colonies in America - New France (Canada), Cayenne, Newfoundland, Martinique, Guadeloupe, and others, in Africa - Senegal. At the end of this century, they captured the eastern part of the island of Espanyola (Haiti) in the Caribbean and penetrated India. There was a large number of large monopolized trade companies with different ends of the world - West and Ost-India, Senegalskaya, Guinea, Levancenaya (for trade with Eastern Mediterranean), etc.

The colonial and trading expansion of France forced England and Holland to unite in order to protect their colonial and maritime interests. As a result of the "glorious revolution" 1688-1689. The English king was chosen by Statch-holder of the United Provinces Wilhelm Orange. There was a personal union of the two largest marine powers of that time -

England and Holland. They saw their task primarily to prevent the implementation of the exercise plans of Louis XIV on the European continent and in colonial

Olga Nagornnyuk

Westphalian world: winning losers

The name "Westphalian world" received two peace treaties concluded in 1648 in the cities of Osnabruck and Münster, located in the Duchy of Westphalia. The signing of these agreements marked the end of the thirty-year war and the next redistribution of the spheres of influence. But these documents had other consequences. About this - in our article.

Westphalian world - the end of the thirty-year war

The thirty-year-old war was the first in the history of mankind with a pan-European armed conflict. The reasons that led to its beginning were political and religious contradictions, exacerbated in the first decade of the XVII century. This period is characterized by a decline of feudalism and the emergence of capitalism. There was a gradual change of historical formations that affected not only politics and economics, but also a religious sphere.

Catholics, who supported the feudal system, were forced to come from their hegemony to the Protestants supported by the young bourgeoisie. Such a state of affairs was not satisfied with Catholic Spain and Germany, headed by Habsburg, who were looking for a reason to start an open attack on the adepts of Protestantism. This pretext was the Prague uprising of 1618, when the participants of the protest action were thrown out of the windows of imperial officials.

As a result, the thirty-year war broke out, which affected almost all countries of Europe. On the side of the Catholics, Spain was performed with Portugal, the Catholic Principality of Germany, the Commonwealth and the Papal Throne. The interests of Protestants defended Sweden, Denmark, Czech Republic, Transylvania, Protestant part of Germany and the later Catholic France, who understood that the spheres of influence begins in the world.

For three decades, the war brought hunger, epidemics and destruction, which painfully hit the economy of opposing countries: they were exhausted, which forced them to start negotiations on the world. Since the antihabssburg (Protestant) coalition was in a more winning position, then the terms of the contract dictated. What turned the Westphalian world for both sides?

Conditions for the conclusion of the Westphalian world

135 delegates who represented the interests of all countries participating in the war were held to negotiate in Osnabruck and Münster. The agenda was the questions of the rights of Catholics and Lutheran, the amnesty of the participants of the war and territorial claims. France wanted to get part of Germany, breaking the environment of the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs, Sweden sought to sovereignty and gaining the dominant role in Baltic, Spain and the Sacred Roman Empire tried to defend their integrity, going to minimal territorial concessions.

The Westphalian world brought:

catholics and Protestants are equal right to religion. This meant the cessation of the persecution of Christians of another denomination. The Westphalian world equalized representatives of both religious flows in rights;

christians are freedom of religion regardless of the place of residence. Starting from 1648, Catholics and Protestants were liberated from the obligatory confession of the official religion of the principality, in whose territory they lived;

The Swiss Confederation and Republic of the United Provinces (Holland) received independence. They became sovereign states who were not part of the Sacred Roman Empire, or submission to the Spanish Crown;

France has increased by new territories: Bishops Tul, Metz and Verden, previously related to the possessions of the Duke of Lorraine, and the free cities of Alsace;

to Sweden, part of Pomerania, Bremen and Fenden Bishopra and the Wismar port city, who after a half century, scandinava was laid out for 1.258 Reichstarters with the right to redeem the Duke of Mecklenburg, and they did not bother to return the property obtained as a result of the 30 years of war;

Brandenburg Prussia expanded its borders at the expense of Eastern Pomerania, Magdeburg, Mindden, Kammin and Halberstadt bishops.

The signing of this document had far-reaching consequences for European states, about which we would further.

Westphalian World: Consequences

The Westphalian world significantly undermined the authority of the Habsburgs and put the cross on their plans to strengthen and expand the Sacred Roman Empire. The emperor, whose rang was previously above the status of kings and princes, was equal with them as rights, and the states moved to a new management model - national. The conclusion of this contract had far-reaching consequences for the world:

1. The church lost its position in the management of the state, dynastic marriages between the monarch of the names that previously brought to the unification of states, also kanuli in the fly. A new model of the world was born - the state-centrist, which endowed every sovereign state the right to independently identify its external and internal policies.

The Westphalian model of the world existed until the twentieth century, when the globalization of the economy began after World War II, and international organizations that influence independent countries and overwhelming their sovereignty appeared.

2. Many historians consider the Westphalian world as the first step towards the beginning of World War II. Germany, who was defeated in the thirty-year war, was fragmented to small principalities and worried a prolonged period of economic and political decline. This loss was deeply shocked by Hermann, having an impact on them, similar to the action of opium wars on the Chinese. Therefore, all subsequent events in the history of Germany: the association of the country in the XIX century and aggression against France to return the territory, rejected after the signing of the Westphalian world, were caused by the desire of the Germans to return their nation's former greatness.

The national-socialist movement headed by Adolf Hitler, according to historians, was directed not only against the Versailles Agreement, due to which Germany lost its part of its territories, but it was intended to change the consequences of the Westphalian world, because of which the national interests of the country were injured.

History is a chain of events and generated by them. What they will be - destroying or creating - depends on us and from our ability to draw conclusions from the lessons that the story presents.

Take yourself, tell me friends!

1.2. The results of the thirty-year war. Westphalian treaty

From the thirty-year-old war, France and Sweden, who played the leading role in European diplomacy of the second half of the XVII - early XVIII centuries after that. Germany, on the contrary, the war was extremely weakened. In addition to significant territorial losses, Germany was extremely ruined by a long war, which occurred mainly on its territory. Westphalian world led to significant territorial changes as in the most Hermann Empire In general, both in individual principalities. Holland and Switzerland were finally recognized by independent states. Some major German principalities have significantly increased their territories. At the same time, the Westphalian world finally secured the fragmentation of Germany.

Thus, the Westphalian world of 1648 graduated from a European thirty-year-old war. He combined two peace treaties concluded on October 24, 1648 - after long-term (since spring 1645) - in the cities of Westphalia Münster and Osnabruke: Osnabruksky (between the emperor of the "Sacred Roman Empire" and its allies, on the one hand, and Sweden with allies - with Another) and Münster (between the emperor with the allies, on the one hand, and France with the allies on the other). (Preamble and part I of the contract, see Appendix 1)

The rulings of the Westphalian world concerned territorial changes, religious relations, the political device of the empire. According to the agreement, Sweden received from the Empire, in addition to the contribution of 5 million thalers, the island of the Rügen, the whole Western and part of Eastern Pomerania with G. Shttethin, Vimar and Secularized Archbishopianship Bremen and Bishoprovy Verden. In the possession of Sweden, therefore, the most important harbor not only the Baltic, but also the North Sea, it as the owner of the German Principles became a member of the Empire with the right to send his deputies to the Imperial Sejors. France received the former possessions of the Habsburgs in Alsace and confirm the sovereignty over the Larring Bishops of Metz, Tul and Verden. France and Sweden - the winner of the winner - were declared the main guarants of the fulfillment of the contract. The Allies of the Winners - the German principalities of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Braunschweig-Lüneburg - expanded their territories at the expense of secularized bishops and monasteries, for the Duke of Bavaria, the upper Palatinate and the title of Kurfürst were fixed. Full independence from the emperor of German princes in conducting both internal and foreign policy (they could not only conclude external unions directed against the empire and the emperor).

In the field of a religious agreement, Calvinists (Reformats) in Germany and Lutherans were equalized in Germany and Lutherans, legalized the secularization of church land produced up to 1624, but deprived the German princes of the right to determine the religious affiliation of the subjects. The contract legally secured the political fragmentation of Germany (which was the result of the entire preceding the course of its socio-economic development).

Religious and church issues did not cause significant disputes at the conclusion of the world. In essence, they were solved already in 1635.

Calvinist princes were equalized in Rights with Lutherans and Catholics, the rulers could still cast out subjects who did not want to confess the state religion. Church property assigned to Protestant princes until 1624 were left at their disposal, but henceforth such seizures were prohibited.

In 1649-1650. The Swedes left the Czech Republic, Moravia and Silesia, and in May 1654 the troops of all fought parties moved over the boundaries planned by the peace treaty.

In the course of the thirty-year war, put the enemy on his knees, not one of the parties. If you compare the pre-war position of the participants in the war, as well as to compare their goals with the results achieved, then the winners should include the French monarchy, which acquired a number of important territories and laid the foundation for complaints about pan-European hegemony. Sweden, which has not reached the goals set by Gustav Adolf, still seized important positions in Germany. Austrian Habsburgs did not become owners Central Europe, but their monarchy came out of the fastening war. The German princes convened, which turned into independent sovereigns; Many of them have achieved territorial increments.

Germany was in a disadvantageous position in relation to Western neighbors, which, constantly intervening in her affairs, supported the internal distribution and prevented the association of the country.

Thirty-year war completed the historical era. She solved the question raised by the Reformation - the question of the place of the Church in the state life of Germany and a number of neighboring countries. Second the most important problem The epochs - the creation of national states on the site of the medieval sacred Roman Empire - was not solved. The empire actually broke out, but not all the states that arose on its ruins had a national character. On the contrary, the conditions of national development of the Germans, Chekhov, Hungarians deteriorated significantly. The increased independence of the princes prevented the National Association of Germany, consolidated its split on the Protestant north and Catholic south.

The Westphalian world has become a turning point in the foreign policy of the Austrian Habsburgs. Its main content in the next 250 years has been expansion to the southeast. The remaining participants of the thirty-year war continued to be the former foreign policy line. Sweden tried to finish Denmark, absorb Poland and prevent the expansion of Russian possessions in the Baltic States. France systematically mastered the territories in the empire, without ceasing to undermine the imperial power of the imperial power here. The rapid elevation was to be Brandenburg, which in the second half of the XVII century. He became dangerous for his neighbors - Sweden and Poland.

In the memory of the peoples of Central Europe, the thirty-year war in centuries remained the most terrible disaster, which human imagination can imagine. Prantz tried to focus on demographic data: according to them, the human losses of Germany in the war were impressive, about 5-6 million people, which inevitably attained the demographic crisis. The geographical diagonal of losses, stretching from the North-West (southwest, Meklenburg) to the south-west (Swabia, Palatinate) schematically lined up. Economic destruction was no less impressive, which, however, in addition to the city of Beranz, confirmed by other experts of economic history (F. Luth).

Starting from the Westphalian world of 1648, sovereignty regime replaced all other forms of political organization at the international level.

1.3. Russia's place in the thirty-year war

The place of Russia in the system of European ties in the XVII century was largely determined by the international situation.

Russia did not take direct participation in the war, but influenced its outcome. Guided by political considerations, she supported Protestants in the fight against Catholics, generously supplying bread from one of the warring parties to Sweden. During this period, Russia's role in European affairs increased significantly. Many states sought the Union with her. Gradually drawn into the negotiation process of various parties, she soon turned out to be in the center of discussions on the creation of the Eastern Antipolsk Coalition. The evil "Okom of the All Great Russia", who carefully followed the events in Europe and around the world, was the Embassy Order.

The thirty-year war ended, and Russia was among the guarantors of the Westphalian treatise, which, by definition of Alexander I, was considered a "Code of Modern Diplomacy" for a long time.

The Westphalian Congress marked the beginning of the regular convening of pan-European conferences to solve the problems of political and international legal significance in which Russia participated. He officially proclaimed a religious and political equality between Catholic and Protestant states, the principle of declarative recognition of states and finally established the institution of permanent diplomatic missions.

International relations during the XVII-XIX centuries passed several stages in their development. At each of these stages, Russia firmly adhered to the norms generally accepted at that time based on the principles of political equilibrium, legitimism or national state factor, introducing a significant contribution to the establishment of interstate relations. Summarizing the said, it is safe to argue that the formation of states, the very world order in Europe largely depended on Russia's policies.

Russia is inseparable from Europe, it is part of it, so any decision of pan-European problems is impossible without its participation. Continuing the traditions of Russian diplomacy, modern Russia cannot remain aside from the process of forming a new system of international relations. Conducting multi-vector policies, it builds its relations with other countries by diversifying external relations, on the basis of an equal partnership.

Chapter 2. Westphalian World in History and World Policy

2.1. Historical assessment of the Westphalian world

The geopolitical era, the beginning of which laid the Westphalian system of international relations, reflected new - compared with the medieval realities.

A peace treaty concluded in Münster and Osnabruck became a reference point for a modern state as a separate territorial education. The Westphalian Agreement consolidated state sovereignty in the field of internal and foreign policy and thereby - the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of states. The "Westphalian system" is a system of self-respecting sovereignty of each other and, in principle, equally among themselves states that themselves determine their internal policies and are free in their external actions.

Analysis of literature shows that in the traditional understanding historical meaning The Westphalian world was expressed as follows: the stage of confessional intolerance was overcome, a new worldview was born at the end of the confessionalization, not only the Empire, but also Europe was at the new stage of history, where politics and everyday life were increasingly dispersed with the norms of religious orthodoxy.

But there are other views on the results of the thirty-year trees. So, F.Press believes that the war stopped the demographic expansion, the population was reduced, destroyed the basic production structures of many cities and rural areas, while, but leaving the whole areas and large cities in prisons, which became the islands of well-being. In the sphere of social relations, the war years brought a powerful shake, destabilization, but at the time stimulated mobility, the emergence of new chances for the rise of individual groups. Moreover, in the assessment of the Westphalian world, the historian concretized the provisions previously nominated. The Westphalian world marked not so much the catastrophic results of the war, but fixed the position of Status Quo Ante. His conditions can be considered the "Great Wasteness" for the Supreme Imperial Nobility, which is now confirming all its privileges. In this regard, a step was taken towards territorial absolutism. But this did not attack the decay of the empire into separate sovereign components, since the overall norms tightly associated society into a single structure.

The nobility, for example, despite all regional differences, as a whole, successfully coped with the crisis of war: economically, due to the forced creation of victim farms in the eastern lands and the achievement of agrarian compromise with peasant communities in the West, politically due to integration into the Office of the Office of Territorial Principality and Service During the court (the court factor as the social institution has always been the focus of F. Press).

In his main book, published in 1991 and entitled: "Wars and crises. Germany 1600-1715 "" F. Press gives the most deployed interpretation of the causes, stroke and outcome of the war from the standpoint of structuralism. In all the most important points, F. Press has not changed, but only unfolded before this sketch. When analyzing the reasons, he mentions the pan-European crisis trends several times (demographic growth, malfunctions in economic development), but nowhere does not expose the war in only the consequence of abstract pan-European problems. On the contrary, he purposefully narrows the search for the origins of the Germanic Area. The thirty-year-old war has become a generation, first of all the innermansky contradictions.

The Westphalian world appears in the eyes of F. Press in a twofol value. He could only be achieved by the participation of foreign powers that turned Germany in the field of international conflict (external aspect), but had paramount importance only for the empire in the aspect of a confessional settlement and "constitutional" (recovery of the desk, Reichstag and imperial districts). Thus, the historian puts logical point In his analysis: Began in mind the innerman's contradictions, the war ended with their resolution. Most of this chapter F.Press devotes the problem of restoring imperial structures, in general, while maintaining loyalty to their old thesis: the world did not destroy, but built.

2.2. The meaning of the Westphalian world in the formation of new international principles of world politics

As a result of the Reformation and a particularly thirty-year-old war, which politically secured the results of religious reforms, there was an actual disintegration of the Holy Roman Empire and began the process of forming national states. Those who succeeded on this path (France, England, Spain, Sweden), and became the main centers of power in Europe. The national states arose approved the new principle of borders that began to be carried out on natural geographical and language signs. In foreign policy, the national-state principle is gradually coming to the dynastic principle.

The most important function of the Westphalian state (first in the absolutist, and then in national form) is the organization of space. Public order is connected by a hierarchy of jurisdictions from the central government to the lower levels. The territorial binding of society to a specific place was an important factor not only in the economic organization, but also in relations between states. The protection of the territory was the main responsibility of the state, since the threat of territorial integrity was perceived as a challenge to public procedures and state power with a territorial definition of society.

As part of its own borders, the state after the Westphalian world has become a monopoly on making decisions. At the international level, this meant the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of other states. The peace treaty established an internationally approved regime of religious tolerance in Germany, and did not allow the rulers to establish norms related to religion on their own territory. The principles of non-interference in the internal affairs of other states were introduced at the end of the eighteenth century E.The Kuttel and Christian Wolf.

The territorial function of the state is non-taxablely related to the economic function. It was the sovereign state that began to develop a system of legal rights and political guarantees of property relations. As the F. Strahod noted, "the power accumulates, as well as money ... In pre-industrial Europe, due to certain determinism, the power political and power coincided."

The stabilization functions of the Westphalian state also appeared. It should have resolved (or at least smooth) conflicts between conflicting economic interests and at the same time maintain the legitimacy of the process. During the periods of rapid public and economic changes, the state should create a system of legal and administrative levers to minimize the consequences of a political or electoral conflict.

Along with the state-nation and legal consolidation of national-state sovereignty in international relations, a system of political equilibrium is enshrined. Its main sense - a compromise between the principle of sovereignty and the principle of general interest. In the process of its operation, this system forces each of the actors to limit its expansionist aspirations, so as not to be in a situation where such a restriction will be imposed on it to others. One of the main means of maintaining equilibrium is one or another type of coalition: either the combination of "all against one" or - when this "one" prudently surrounded by allies, the coalition of the blockade, into which those who want to maintain the current ratio of forces enter. The coalition is aimed at finding a state that potentially in one form or another violates political equilibrium. In case of failure failure, the means of curbing such a state used by the coalition becomes local war For limited goals. Thus, in this system, one-sided use of force is a factor in creating a mess, while its collective use is considered as a tool for maintaining order.

In the future, the concept of political equilibrium has acquired a broader meaning and began to mean: a) any distribution of force; b) the policy of any state or group of states aimed at ensuring excessive ambitions of another state are curbed through the agreed opposition of those who risk becoming victims of these ambitions; c) a multipolar aggregate, in which, from time to time, the great powers are combined in order to measure excessive ambitions of one of them.

The basic idea of \u200b\u200bthe principle of political equilibrium, proclaimed in Westphal, in the opinion of S.A. In the opinion, on the one hand, in intention to protect the independence and freedom of state through the equitable and proportional distribution of territories between them and the population, on the other - to counteract the desire of individual states to world domination and their attempts to make changes to the balance of power.

The idea of \u200b\u200bequilibrium as the principle of international relations and international law existed until 1815, when the defeat of Napoleon and the temporary victory of monarchical restorations were fixed in the Vienna Congress in principle "legitimism", which meant in this case an attempt to restore feudal orders in this case. It does not follow from this that the equilibrium mechanism is no longer used to maintain order. On the contrary, in the above broad sense, it becomes hardly a versatile agent, which in one degree or another finds itself applied up to the present day.

Already in the second half of the XIX century. The Holy Union created as a result of the Vienna Congress, and by the end of the century in Europe there are two main military-political groups - the three-way union and the anthita, which unleashed at the beginning XX in. The first world war. Its outcome was the new split of Europe and the world as a whole, the October Revolution and the formation of the USSR.

According to the traditional principles of the Westphalian system, civil rights were purely internal affair states. However, starting with the prohibition of piracy in the XVIIIVEK and slave trade in the nineteenth century, this principle began to blur. The Vienna Congress of 1815 was, perhaps, the first at the new time with the appeal of international elites to the problem of civil rights. The Congress discussed the issues of religious freedom, civil and political rights and cancellation. He followed a number of contracts for the abolition of slavery. Examples include the Berlin Conference on Africa 1885, Brussels Conference of 1890, Geneva Conference of 1926. The Hague World Conferences 1899 and 1907 introduced the principle of the rights of individuals to contact the Court of Appeal. The Versailles Peace Conference of 1919 discussed among other things and the question of the protection of minorities. Attempts to establish universal standards of civil rights began after World War II with the adoption of the 1948 Genocide Convention and the Universal Declaration of Civil Rights of 1949.

Thus, the history of international relations was developed from 1648, from the end of the thirty-year war.

Conclusion

The principles laid down in the Westphalian Treaty have formed the basis of modern international relations. After the signing of the Westphalian world, no monarchies associated with dynastic and other bonds began to play the leading role, but sovereign states. Now the state interest is plays a decisive role, and historical and confessional principles have moved into the past. The principle of violence appeared: Protestants and Catholics were equalized in rights. All contradictions, because of which the thirty-year-old war began, found their resolution. The principle of the original German freedom appeared, the authority of the Habsburgs fell. The German fragmentation was confirmed. On the one hand, this provided freedom to the German rulers, they ceased to depend on major monarchs, but on the other hand, the Westphalian world did not allow the problem of uniting German lands, the German question (like Italian) moved to the Vienna relations system.

Also as a result of the thirty-year-old war, a certain equilibrium has developed, the balance of the forces between the states of that time, in which none of them had decisive superiority over others. If one Power broke the world and calm, the coalition immediately emerged, the purpose of which was the restoration of peace and the opposition to the aggressor. The basis of all coalitions was traditionally the United Kingdom. They never possessed a powerful land army, but always provided financial support.

The Westphalian world made changes to the system of international relations. In the XVIII century, the Westphalian system was largely dependent on the will and desires of five large states: England, Germany, as well as Russia, Austria and Prussia.

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Attachment 1

Peace. Treaty between The Holy Roman Emperor and
The King of France and Their ReSpective Allies.

(Peace treaty between the Holy Roman emperor and the king of France and their respective allies)

In The Name of The Most Holy and Individual Trinity: Be It Known to All, And Every One WHOM IT MANNER IT MAY BELONG, THAT FOR MANNER IT MAY BELONG, THAT FOR MANNE YEARS PAST, DISCORDS AND CIVIL DIVISIONS BEING STIR "D UP In The Roman Empire, Which Increas "D To Such A Degree, That Not Only All Germany, But Also The Neighboring Kingdoms, And France Particularly, Have Been Involv" D in The Disorders of a Long and Cruel War: and in the first place , Between The Most Serene and Most Puissant Prince and Lord, Ferdinand The Second, Of Famous Memory, Elected Roman Emperor, Always August, King of Germany, Hungary, Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Arch Duke Of Austria, Duke Of Burgundy , Brabant, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Marquiss of Moravia, Duke of Luxemburgh, The Higher and Lower Silemsia, Of Wirthmburg and Teck, Prince Of Suabia, Count Of Hapsburg, Tirol, Kyburg and Goritia, Marquiss of the Sacred Roman Empire, Lord Of The Higher and Lower Lusace, of the Marquisate of Slavoni A, of Port Naon and Salines, with His Allies and Adherents on One Side; And The Most Serene, And The Most Puissant Prince, Lewis The Thirteenth, Most Christian King Of France and Adherents on the Other Side. And After Serene and Puissant Prince and Lord, Ferdinand The Third, Elected Roman Emperor, Always August, King Of Germany, Hungary, Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Arch Duke Of Austria, Duke Of Burgundy, Brabant, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Marquiss of Moravia, Duke of Luxemburg, of the Higher and Lower Silemburg, Of the Higher and Lower Silemburg, Count of Hapsburg, Tirol, Kyburg and Goritia, Marquiss of the Sacred Roman Empire, Burgovia , The Higher and Lower Lusace, Lord Of The Marquisate of Slavonia, of Port Naon and Salines, With His Allies and Adherents on the One Side; And The Most Serene and Most Puissant Prince and Lord, Lewis The Frarty, Most Christian King of France and Navarre, With His Allies and Adherents on the Other Side: From Whence Ensu "D Great Effusion of Christian Blood, And The Desolation of Several Provinces IT HAS AT Last Happen "D, By The Effect of Divine Goodness, Seconded by The Effect of Divine Goodness, Seconded by The Endeavours of the Most Serene Republick of Venice, Who in this Sad Time, When All Christendom Is Imbroil" D, Has Not CEAS "D to Contribute Its COUNSELS FOR THE PUBLICK WELFARE AND TRANQUILLITY; SO THAT ON SIDE, AND THE OTHER, THEY HAVE FORM "D THOUGHTS OF AN UNIVERSAL PEACE. And for this Purpose, by A Mutual Agreement and Covenant of Both Partys, In The 25th of December 1641. The 25th of Decepthember, N.S. or the 15th O.S. IT WAS RESOLV "D At Hamburgh, To Hold An Assembly of Plenipotentiary Ambassadors, Who Should Render Themselves AT MUNSTER AND OSNABRUG IN WESTPHALIA THE 11TH OF JULY, NS CE 1ST OF THE SAID MONTH OS IN THE YEAR 1643. THE PENIPOTENIARY AMBASSADORS ON THE One Side, And The Other, Duly Establisht Time, And On The Behalf of His Imperial Majestty, The Most Illustrious and Most Excellent Lord, Maximilian Count of Trautmansdorf and Weinsberg, Baron Of Gleichenberg, Neustadt, Negan, Burgau, And Torzenbach, Lord of Teinitz, Knight of the Golden Fleece, Privy Counsellor and Chamberlain to His Imperial Sacred Majesty, And Steward of His Houshold; The Lord John Lewis, Count Of Nassau, Catzenellebogen, Vianden, And Dietz, Lord Of Bilstein, Privy Counselor to the Emperor, and Knight of the Golden Fleece; Monsieur Isaac Volmamarus, Doctor of Law, Counsellor, and President of the Charam of the Most Serene Lord Arch Duke Ferdinand Charles. And on the behalf of the most Christian King, the most eminent Prince and Lord, Henry of Orleans, Duke of Longueville, and Estouteville, Prince and Sovereign Count of Neuschaftel, Count of Dunois and Tancerville, Hereditary Constable of Normandy, Governor and Lieutenant- General of the CENT Hommes D "Arms, and Knight of the King" s Orders, & c. As Also The Most Illustrious and most Excellent Lords, Claude de Mesmes, Count D "Avaux, Commander of the Said King" S Orders, One Of The Superintendents of the Finances and Minister Of The Kingdom of France & C. And ABEL SERVIEN, COUNT LA ROCHE OF AUBIERS, ALSO ONE OF THE MINISERS OF THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE. And Most Excellent AMBASSADOR AND SENATOR OF VENICELENT AMBASSADOR AND SENATOR OF VENICHT, ALOYSIUS CONTARINI KNIGHT, WHO FOR THE SPACE OF FIVE YEARS, AND APORTS, WITH GREAT DILIGENCE, AND A SPIRIT INCLIN "D To Be a Mediator in These Affairs. After Having Implor "DA Reciprocal Communication of Letters, Commissions, And Full Powers, The Copys of Which Are Inserted At The End of this Treaty in The Presnce and With the CONSENT OF THE ELECTORS OF THE SACRED ROMAN EMPIRE, THE GLORY OF GOD, AND THE BENEFIT OF THE CHRISTIAN WORLD, THE FOLLOWING ARTICLES HAVE BEEN AGREED ON AND CONSENTED TO, AND THE SAME RUN THUS.

That There Shall Be a Christian and Universal Peace, And A Perpetual, True, and Sincere Amity, Between His Sacred Imperial Majesty, And His Most Christian Majesty; As Also, Between All and Each of the Allies, And Adherents of His Said Imperial Majesty, The House of Austria, and Its Heirs, and Successors; But Chiefly Between The Electors, Princes, and States of the Empire on the One Side; All and Each of the Allies of His Said Christian Majesty, and all their Heirs and Successors, Chiefly Between The Most Serene Queen And Kingdom Of Swedeland, The Electors Respectively, The Princes and States of the Empire, On the Other Part. That This Peace and Amity Be Observation "D and Cultivated with Such A Sincerity and Zeal, That Each Party Shall Endeavour to Procure The Benefit, Honour and Advantage of the Other; That Thus On All Sides They May See This Peace and Friendship in the Roman Empire, And the Kingdom of France Flourish, by Entertaining A Good and Faithful Neighborhood.

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Westphalian world- peace treaty completed Thirty-year war enclosed after complex and long negotiations between the warring parties of the Coalition of the Austrian and Spanish Habsburg and the opposing antihabssburg block of European powers. Negotiations took place in the German cities of Westphalia (hence the name). Consisted of two combined peace treaties signed in Osnabruck and Münster. The final version of the Westphalian peace treaty was signed on October 24, 1648 in Münster.

In 1618 it broke out one of the most the largest wars In the history of Europe - a thirty-year war. As opposed to the European hegemony of the German and Spanish Habsburgs in the struggle for the Christian World, supported by papacy, Catholic princes of Germany and Commonwealth speech The antihabssburg coalition formed the coalition of a number of European states - France , Dutch Republic , Sweden , Dani. , Russia , Protestant German principalities, Czech Republic , Transylvania, northern Italian principalities and partly England.

Despite the rivalry of the Austrian and Spanish branches of the Habsburgs for influence in Europe, the Spanish government believed that the victory of the Austrian Habsburgs and the Catholic response in Germany in the region of the Rhine will allow Spain to re-attach the bourgeois republic of the Northern Netherlands and entrenched in the north of Italy. Habsburg developed various dynastic options for the merger of the Spanish and Austrian imperial branches.

France could not reconcile with the strengthening of the Habsburg coalition and their possible joint actions on the Middle and Nizhny Rhine. In addition, France was unhappy with Spain expansion in southern Italy ( cm. Sicily both kingdom), as well as in the north-Italian regions that are a link between the possessions of the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs.

The French king of Heinrich IV Bourbon began to be preparing for war and before his death managed to be a coalition against the Habsburgs, in addition to the French kingdom, a number of German Protestant Principles were entered. In the fight against Habsburg, France also relied on the support of Turkish Sultan.

The main focus of the breeding pan-European conflict, which spilled into the bloody thirty-year-old war of 1618-1648, was the German principalities, in which a Catholic response came after the reformation and peasant war. In 1608, the struggle between the German principalities in the sacred Roman Empire increased. Created in Protestant Duchy and Principles Protestant Sania, led by the German Duke Friedrich V Pataltsky, pinned all his hopes for France.

In contrast to Protestant Uly, in 1609 the Catholic League was formed, the head of which the Jesuit pupil was, Duke Maximilian Bavarian, striving to use the Catholic Union forces for the elevation of his ruling home at the expense of Habsburgs. The Commander of the Catholic League Catholic League Maximilian Bavarian appointed the Imperial Feldmarshala Baron von Tili.

On the side of the Habsburg Coalition, the Eastern Catholic reaction was performed by the Commonwealth (United State Poland and the Principality of Lithuania). Orthodox Moscow StateForced to take into account the pan-European alignment of the strength before the beginning of the thirty-year-old war, concluded a disadvantageous pillar world with Sweden, joining the Anti-Bassburg coalition to reflect the incessant expansion from Poland. European powers of both opposing coalitions could not not be considered with the interests of Russia on the eastern borders of the Catholic League.

The thirty-year war began in 1618 open aggression of Habsburgs against the Czech Republic. The war includes several periods: Czech period (1618-1623); Danish period (1625-1629); Swedish period (1630-1635); Franco-Swedish (1635-1648) and Russian-Polish War (1632-1634).

As a result of the bloody thirty-year war, the Habsburg coalition suffered a full fiasco. After a number of serious lesions caused by the imperial troops, and the threat of capturing the Austrian capital of Vienna, the Emperor of the Sacred Roman Empire Ferdinand III was forced to go to the hardest conditions for Germany.

The first peace treaty between Sweden, the emperor of the Sacred Roman Empire and Protestant German princes was signed in Osnabruck. The second contract was signed with France on October 24, 1648 in Münster.

As a result of the Westphalian peace treaty, 1648, which put the end of the first pan-European war, a map of Western European states was largely closed.

The ambassadors of the Holy Roman Empire in the negotiations preceding the signing of the Westsfalsky world were Count Trutmanssdorf, Count Nassau, Dr. Folmar. Spanish side represented Count Perpignan. Swedish representatives - Y.Oksenshserna And A. Salvius. From France - Duke Longwill, Count D AVO, Count A.Serving (in direct coordination with Cardinal Mazarini in Paris).

Under the terms of the contract, Sweden received all Western Pomerania (German Baltic Pomorie) with the island of Rügen, the city of Shttin and a number of other territories in East Pomerania. In addition, the Pomeranian Bay with all coastal cities, the island of Volin, Archbishopianism of Bremen, was sent to Sweden, Epishopalism Verden and Visar. Practically Sweden became the dominant state in the Baltic Sea. Sweden also paid a huge contribution of 5 million thalers.

France received the upper and lower Alsace, Hagenau and Zundgaau, the Bishop of Metz, Tul and Vernen (on Maas). Strasbourg formally remained as part of the Sacred Roman Empire. The Netherlands and Switzerland received official international recognition as independent states. The German principalities of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, Braunschweig-Lüneburg increased their possessions at the expense of a number of bishops and abbey. The most difficult paragraph of the Westphalian world was fixing political fragmentation Sacred Roman Empire. German princes received complete independence from the emperor.

The monarchs of the winners of Sweden, France and Russia (Moscow Prince) appeared as the guarantors of the Westphalian world.

The Habsburg coalition in an attempt to create the global "Christian" empire suffered a complete collapse. The French kingdom has become a dominant state in Western Europe for many years. The pan-European borders established by the Westphalian treaty whole century remained unshakable.

The heavy Westphalian world of 1648 became a new link in the disaster circuits of the German people and deeply shook Germany, imposing a tragic imprint on the entire subsequent moral and cultural life of the country. A number of historians believe that the consequences of the Westfali world predetermined the subsequent economic and political backwardness of Germany. At the end of the 18th century German historiography pinned wine for the fragmentation of Germany in French public figures - participants of the thirty-year war and the subsequent Westphalian peace treaty - Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarini . Many historians tend to believe that the difficult consequences of the Westphalian contract prompted Germany to unite the country in the second half of the 19th century. and aggression against France to return the original Western German lands included in the French kingdom in 1648.

During World War II, a number of historical works were published in Nazi Germany, which argued that the National Socialist Movement was a protest not only against the Versailles 1919, but also against the Osnabruck and Munster. The founder of Prucian-German statehood King Friedrich II, a uniform of the Unified German Empire Chancellor Otto von Bismarck , Emperor Kaiser Wilhelm II Gogenzollerne and Führer of the Third Reich Adolf Hitler declared the leaders of the four stages of the fight against the heritage of the Westphalian world to unite the German Empire.