The basis of the Russian economy in the second half of the XVII in remained serfdom. However, along with him, new phenomena are found in the economic life of the country. The most important of them was the folding of the All-Russian market. In Russia, this time develops small commodity production and money circulation, manufactory appears. The economic separation of individual regions of Russia begins to go to the past. The formation of the All-Russian market was one of the prerequisites for the development of Russian nationality in a nation ( See V. I. Lenin, what is "friends of the people" and how are they fighting against Social Democrats? Op., Vol. 1, p. 137-138.).

In the XVII century There was a further process of forming a feudal-absolutist (autocratic) monarchy. Zemstvo Cathedrals, who have repeatedly gathered in the first half of the century, by the end of the century finally ceased their activities. The value of Moscow orders as central institutions with their bureaucracy in the face of Dyakov and the attaincam is increased. In his internal policy, autocracy relied on the nobility, which becomes a closed estate. There is a further strengthening of the rights of the nobility to land, landfill land in new districts apply. "Cathedral Code" of 1649 legally issued serfdom.

The strengthening of the fierce oppression met the fierce resistance of the peasants and the bottom of the urban population, which was primarily in powerful peasant in city uprisings (1648,1650,1662, 1670-1671). The class struggle was reflected in the largest religious movement in Russia XVII century. - split the Orthodox Russian Church.

The rapid economic growth of Russia in the XVII century promoted the further development of extensive spaces of Eastern Europe and Siberia. In the XVII century There is a promotion of Russian people on the little-sized territories of the Nizhny Don, the North Caucasus, the Middle and Lower Volga region and Siberia.

The event of a huge historical significance was the reunification of Ukraine with Russia in 1654. Related Russian and Ukrainian peoples united in a single state, which contributed to the development of the productive forces and the cultural rise of both peoples, as well as the political strengthening of Russia.

Russia XVII century. It acts in international relations as a great power extending from the Dnieper in the West to the Pacific Ocean in the East.

Serfdom

In the second half of the XVII century. The main occupation of the Russian population remained agriculture, based on the operation of the feudal dependent peasantry. In agriculture continued to be applied in the preceding time methods of soil processing. Most of all was distributed three-rolled, but in the forest areas of the North, it was an important place for the scene, and in the steppe strip of the South and the Middle Volga region - a flog. This characteristic of feudalism methods for the processing of the Earth corresponded to primitive productions of production (Socha and Harbor) and low yields.

The land was owned by secular and spiritual feudalists, palace departments and the state. Boyars and nobles by 1678 focused 67% of peasant yards in their hands. It was achieved by respect from the government and the direct seizures of palace and protein (state) lands, as well as the possessions of small seruners. The nobles created serfs in the non-hedied southern countries of the state. In the unflipped state by this time there was only a tenth of the burner (i.e. paid taxes) of the population of Russia (possessing people and the proteinous peasants).

The overwhelming part of secular feudal belongs to the number of medium and small landowners. What was the household of the nobleman of the middle hand, can be seen from the correspondence of A. I. Rezodekov. He did not bent with any means, if it was possible to round her possessions. Like many other landowners, he vigorously captured and scooped fertile lands, unsuccessfully driven by serving small melts, and moved to the south of his peasants from less fertile central counties.

Second place after the nobles in the size of land ownership occupied spiritual feudalities. In the second half of the XVII century. Bishops, monasteries and churches belonged over 13% of the burdens. The Trinity Sergius monastery was especially highlighted. In his possessions scattered throughout the European territory of Russia, about 17 thousand yards were listed. Prickly monasteries led their farm with the same serfs as secular feudalles.

In a few better conditions compared to the landlord and monastic peasants were the Black-sized peasants who lived in Pomorie, where the landowner was almost absent landlord and land was considered state. But they were burdened by various kinds of mantles in favor of the treasury, suffered from oppression and abuse of royal governors.

The center of the estate or victobs was the village, or Selo, next to which the Lord's manor was standing with the house and the surplus buildings. A typical Barsky courtyard in the middle lane of Russia consisted of a hill, put on the semisillary floor. With it, there were Seni - a spacious reception room. Next to the hill were shopping buildings - cellar, barn, sauna. The yard was fenced with a fence, there was a garden nearby. The rich nobility of the estate was more extensive and lush than small landowners.

The village, or Selo, was the center for the villages adjacent to him. In the middle size village, more than 15-30 yards were rarely numbered, there were usually 2-3 yard in the villages. Peasant yards consisted of warm huts, cold hay and surplus buildings.

The landowner kept in the hills estate. They worked on the garden, livestock yard, in the stable. The Delician economy was headed by a clerk, a trustee of the landowner. However, the farm, which was conducted with the help of yard people, only partially satisfied landlord requests. The main income of the landowners brought a borehole or workers' subsidy of serfs. The peasants were treated with land in the land, cleaned the harvest, mowed a meadow, drove firewood from the forest, cleaned the ponds, built and repaired the Barski choirs. In addition to the barbecue, they were obliged to deliver the "table reserves" gentlemen - a certain amount of meat, eggs, dry berries, mushrooms, etc. In some villages, Boyarov B. I. Morozova, for example, was supposed to be given a pork carcass in each peasant yard Barana, goose with losses, 4 pigs, 4 chicken, 40 eggs, some cow oil and cheese.

An increase in domestic demand for agricultural products, as well as partly the removal of some of them abroad encouraged the landowners to expand the boring spare and raise the lifts. In this regard, the peasant barbecue continuously increased in the Black Earth Strip, and in the areas of non-sinnamine, the predominant of the central (except for Votchin's near Moscow, of which supplies were delivered to the capital), where the barbecue was less common, the proportion of workers' concerns increased. The landowner is expanded at the expense of the best peasant lands, which were led by the Lord's fields. In areas where the lifts prevailed, slowly, but steadily increased the value of the money rent. This phenomenon reflected the development of commodity-money relations in the country, in which peasant farms were gradually involved. However, in its pure form, money marks met very rarely; As a rule, it was combined with Renta products or with a barbecue obligations.

A new phenomenon, closely related to the development of commodity-monetary relations in Russia, was the creation in large landlords of various kinds of fishing enterprises. The largest marker of the middle of the XVII century. Boyar Morozov organized a potash production on average, built in the village of Pavlovsky's village in the village of Pavlovsky, he had a lot of blinked. This chaser, according to contemporaries, there was such greed to gold, "like an ordinary thirst for drinking."

For example, Morozova followed some other major boyars - Miloslavsky, Odoyevskiy, etc. At their industrial enterprises, the most burdensome work on woodworking or ore was pinned on the peasants, obliged to operate in turn on their own horses, leaving her arable to be asked in the hottest time of field work. . Thus, the passion for large feudal industrial production has not changed the serfdom of the organization of their farm.

Large faeodals introduced some innovations in their homes, where new varieties of fruit trees, fruits, vegetables appeared, and so on, greenhouses were built for growing southern plants.

The occurrence of manufactory and the development of small commercial production

An important phenomenon in the Russian economy was the founding of manuff. In addition to metallurgical enterprises, leather, glass, stationery and other manufactories arose. Dutch merchant A. Vinius, who switched to Russian citizenship, built the first Water Ruinee Plant in Russia. In 1632, he received a royal complicated diploma on the device near Tula plants for the production of cast iron and iron, molding of cannons, Kotlsv, etc. Vinius did not cope with his own means with the construction of plants and several years later entered the company with two other Dutch merchants. Large ironing plants were somewhat later created in Kashira, in the Olonets Territory, near Voronezh and near Moscow. At these factories were made cannon and rifle trunks, strip iron, boilers, frying pan, etc. in the XVII century. The first sophisticated plants in Russia have arisen. Copper Ore was found near Sali Kamak, where the treasury built a Pyskorsky plant. Subsequently, at the base of Pysdor Rud, the Playlist Playlists was acted by the Tumashevy brothers.

Work on manufactory was carried out in the main manual; However, some processes were mechanized using water engines. Therefore, manufactory was usually built on robes, damned dams. Labor and cheap paid works (earthworks, cutting and car drives, etc.) were made in the main attribute peasants or their own serfs, as it was, for example, at the Tsar-Tsar-Testa Raising Plant I. D. Miloslavsky. Two palace volosts were attributed to the Tula and Kashir plants soon after their foundation.

The decisive role in providing the population by industrial products belonged, however, not to manufactities, the number of which even by the end of the XVII century. It did not reach three dozen, and peasant homemade fields, urban craft and small commodity production. In connection with the growth of market ties in the country intensified small commodity production. Serpukhov, Tula and Tikhviny blacksmiths, Pomeranian carpenters, Yaroslavl weaves and leather workers, Moscow speeds and Suknales worked not so much to order as to the market. Some commodity producers used the hired workforce, however, in small sizes.

Large development also received the seizure of the fishery, especially in the non-black-earth areas near Moscow and north of it. The growth of the owner and state duties forced the peasants to go to work, hiring for construction work, on excavar and other fisheries as utility workers. A large number of peasants were occupied on river transport, where burlates were required, pulling ships upstream of the river, as well as movers and ship workers. Transport and slipping were serviced by the benefit of hired labor. Among the burlacs and ship workers there were many "walking people", as documents called people who are not related to a certain place of residence. In the XVII century, the number of villages and villages inhabited by "unpaired peasants", "non-aparticles" are continuously increasing.

Economic regions of Russia

Separate parts of the enormous Russian state that occupied extensive spaces in Europe and in Asia, naturally, were inhomogeneous and in natural conditions, and in terms of socio-economic development. The most populated developed was the central area, the so-called stingy cities with surrounding villages. The villages and villages overturned the capital from all sides. Moscow was the largest city in Eastern Europe and consisted of up to 200 thousand inhabitants. She was the most important center for trade, craft and small commodity production. In it and its surroundings, first of all arose enterprises of a manufactory type.

In the central district of Russia, a variety of peasant crafts and urban craft received a large development. There were also the largest Russian cities - Yaroslavl, Nizhny Novgorod, Kaluga. A straight land road tied Moscow through Yaroslavl with Vologda, where the waterway began to Arkhangelsk.

The extensive edge, adjacent to the White Sea, known as Pomegrania, was populated at that time relatively weakly. Russians, Karelia, Komi, etc. lived here. In the northern regions of this region, due to climatic conditions, the population was more engaged in fisheries (salt, fisheries, etc.) than agriculture. Particularly great was the role of Pomina in the supply of Salt country. In the area of \u200b\u200bthe largest center of Solevaria - Salt Kama, there were over 200 varnaries that delivered up to 7 million pounds of salt annually. The most important cities of the North were Vologda and Arkhangelsk, who were the extreme points of the Sukhonian Dvinsky River Way. Through the Arkhangelsk port held trade with abroad. In Vologda and holmers were cable workshops. About fertile soils In the area of \u200b\u200bVologda, the Great Ustyug and in Vyatka, the region favored the successful development of agriculture. Vologda and Ustyug, and in the second half of the XVII century. Vyatka region were large bread markets.

In the West of Russia there were lands "from the German and Lithuanian Ukraine" (outskirts). These were areas that took place in other areas and abroad Len and Hemp. The largest cities and shopping centers were Smolensk and Pskov, whereas Novgorod shook and lost its former importance.

In the XVII century, the rapid settlement of southern regions took place. Furious peasants from the central counties were continuously directed here. Trade and fisheries of this area were insignificant, and there were no major cities here, but in rich chernozem, grain economy successfully developed here.

Russian peasants fled also in the middle Volga region. Next to Mordovskaya, Tatar, Chuvash and Mari villages, Russian villages arose. Earth south of Samara remained still unclosed. The largest cities of the Volga region were Kazan and Astrakhan. In Astrakhan lived a motley population: Russians, Tatars, Armenians, people from Bukhara, etc. In this city, lively trade in the countries of Central Asia, Iran and Transcaucasus was conducted.

In the south of Eastern European Plain, Russia was part of Russia in the XVII century. Part of the North Caucasus, as well as the area of \u200b\u200bthe Don and Yaitsky Cossack troops. The rich industrialist Guryev founded the city of Guriev with a stone fortress in the mouth of the Yaika (Urals).

After 1654, the left-bank Ukraine was reunited with Russia together with Kiev, which had self-government and elected hetman.

In terms of its territory, Russia already in the XVII century was the largest in the world, the state.

Siberia

Extensive area of \u200b\u200bRussia XVII century. There was Siberia. She was inhabited by peoples standing at different stages of social development. The most numerous ones were the Yakuts who occupied a huge territory in the Lena basin and her tributaries. The basis of their farm was cattle breeding, hunting and fisheries were secondary importance. In winter, Yakuta lived in wooden heated yurts, and in the summer went to pastures. The head of the Yakut tribes stood elders - Tayona, holders of large pastures. Among the peoples of Baikalia in numbers, Buryats occupied the first place. Most Buryat was engaged in livestock, led the nomadic lifestyle, but among them there were agricultural tribes. Buryats experienced the period of becoming feudal relations, they had even strong patriarchal-generic remnants.

On the huge spaces from Yenisei to the Pacific Ocean, Evenks (Tungusi) were engaged in hunting and fishing. Chukchi, Koryaks and Iliants (Kamchadals) inhabited the northeastern regions of Siberia with Kamchatka Peninsula. These tribes were shill then by the generic system, they did not know the use of iron yet.

The expansion of Russian possessions in Siberia was carried out mainly by the local administration and industrial people, who were looking for new "land", rich in the fur beast. Russian industrial people penetrated Siberia on multi-water Siberian rivers, whose tributaries are close to each other. Military detachments were walked by their traces, which made the fortified custody, which was made by the centers of the colonial exploitation of the peoples of Siberia. The path from Western Siberia to the East went on the influx of Ob, the Keta River. On Yenisei, the city of Yeniseisk appeared (initially Yenisei Ostrog, 1619). Somewhat later, another Siberian city was founded in the upper course of Yenisei. According to the hangar or the upper Tunguska, the river path led Lena to the upheavals. It was built on it Lensky Ostrog (1632, later Yakutsk), which became the center of Eastern Siberia.

In 1648, Semen Dejnev opened the "edge and end of the Siberian land." The expedition of the clerk of Ustyug's trading people, Ushina Fedot Alekseeva (Popov), as part of the six courts came out into the sea from the mouth of Kolyma. On one of the courts were dezhnev. The storm was hosted by the expedition trial, some of them died or were thrown ashore, and the vessel Dezhnev warned the extreme northeastern tip of Asia. Thus, Dejnev first made a sea trip through Bering Strait and found that Asia was separated from America with water.

By the middle of the XVII century. Russian detachments penetrated Dauria (Transbaikalia and Amur region). Expedition Vasily Poyarkova for the rivers Zee and Amuru reached the sea. The polarks on the sea sailed to the river Uli (district of Okhotsk), climbed on it up and Io River Ramas Lena returned to Yakutsk. A new expedition to Amur made Cossacks under the superiors of Yerofi Khabarova, built the town on Amur. After the government recalled Khabarov from the town, the Cossacks held in it for another while, but due to the lack of food were forced to leave him.

The penetration of the Amur pool led Russia to the conflict with China. Military actions ended with the conclusion of the Nerchinsky Treaty (1689). The contract determined the Russian-Chinese border and contributed to the development of trade between the two states.

Following industrial and servants, peasants-migrants were sent to Siberia. The tide of "free people" in Western Siberia began immediately after the construction of Russian towns and especially intensified in the second half of the XVII century, when the "many number" of peasants moved here, mainly from the northern and neighboring Narral counties. The fattened peasant population collapsed mainly in Western Siberia, which became the main focus of the agricultural economy of this extensive edge.

The peasants were settled on the empty lands or captured the lands belonging to local "yasant people." The size of pasta sites belonging to the peasants in the XVII century was not limited. In addition to pasty land, it turned into it by the roads, and sometimes commercial land. Russian peasants brought with them a skill of higher agricultural culture compared to the one that was in the Siberian peoples. The main agricultural crops of Siberia were made by rye, oats and barley. Along with them, technical crops appear, primarily hemp. Widespread development received animal husbandry. Already by the end of the XVII century. Siberian agriculture satisfied the population needs of Siberian cities in agricultural products and, thus, freed the government from expensive bread delivery from European Russia.

The conquest of Siberia was accompanied by the design of the conquered population by Yasak - Dania. Yasaka's payment was usually made by furs, the most valuable goods that enriched the royal treasury. The "chanting" of the Siberian peoples by servilative people was accompanied by induluble violence. Official documents were recognized that Russian merchants sometimes invited "people to trade and their wives and children, and the stomachs and cattle robbed, and the violence they revealed many."

The huge territory of Siberia was in the management of the Siberian order. The intensity of the robbery of the peoples of Siberia Tsarism is indicated by the fact that the incomes of the Siberian order in 1680 were more than 12% of the total budget of Russia. The peoples of Siberia, in addition, were exposed to Russian merchants whose wealth was created by exchanging craft products and cheap decorations on beautiful fur, which made an important article of Russian exports. Merchants of Usov, Pankratyev, Fuelyevy, etc., accumulating major capital on Siberian trade, became the owners of manufactory on Welding Salt in Pomorie, without stopping at the same time their trading activities. G. Nikitin, a leaving of the Black-sized peasants, one time was pretended as a clerk E. Flavueva and in a short time he nominated in the ranks of Moscow merchant nobility. In 1679, Nikitin was enlisted in the living room, and in two years he was awarded to the title of a guest. By the end of the XVII century. Capital Nikitina exceeded 20 thousand rubles. (about 350 thousand rubles. for money starts XX century.). Nikitin, as well as his former chuck Fiteyev, rich in predatory trade of furs in Siberia. He was one of the first Russian merchants who organized trade with China.

By the end of the XVII century. Significant spaces of Western and partly eastern Siberia were already populated by Russian peasants who have mastered many earlier desert areas. Most of Siberia became Russian in their population, especially the Black Earth areas of Western Siberia. Communication with the Russian people, despite the colonial policy of tsarism, had enormous importance for the development of economic and cultural life of all peoples of Siberia. Under the immediate influence of Russian farming, the arable land of Yakuts and nomads-Buryats began to cultivate. Siberia's accession to Russia created conditions for the further economic and cultural development of this extensive country.

Folding the All-Russian Market

New, exceptional in its meaning was the formation of the All-Russian market, the center of which Moscow becomes. On the movement of goods to Moscow, it is possible to judge the degree of public and territorial division of labor, on the basis of which the All-Russian market was developed: the Moscow region was supplied by meat and vegetables; Cow oil was taken from the middle Volga region; The fish was brought from Pomerania, Rostov County, Lower Volga region and Prioksky places; Vegetables also received from Belie, Borovsk and Rostov district. Iron of Moscow provided Tula, Galich, Ustyuzhna Izopropol and Tikhvin; The skin was brought mainly from the Yaroslavl-Kostroma and Suzdal districts; Wooden dishes supplied the Volga region; Salt - Pomerania cities; Moscow was the largest market for Siberian furs.

Based on the production specialization of individual districts, markets were made up with the predominant value of any goods. So, Yaroslavl was famous for the sale of leather, soap, sala, meat and textile products; Veliky Ustyug and especially the Salt Coinched were the largest futured markets - the fur received from Siberia were delivered from here or to Arkhangelsk for exports or to Moscow for sale within the country. In Smolensk and Pskov, Flax and Hemp came from nearby areas, then arrived at the abroad market.

Some local markets tie intensive trade relations with the cities far away from them. Tikhvin Posad with his annual fair supported trade with 45 cities of Russia. Purchaising from local Kuznetsov products products of iron fishery, the buyers resell them to be more large merchants, and the latter dispersed significant parties of goods in Ustyuzhna Iron-Polish, as well as to Moscow, Yaroslavl, Pskov and other cities.

A huge role in the country's trade turnover was played by the Fair of All-Russian importance, such as Makarevskaya (near Nizhny Novgorod), Svnaskaya (near Bryansk), Arkhangelsk and others, which lasted for several weeks.

In connection with the folding of the All-Russian market, the role of merchants in the economic and political life of the country increased. In the XVII century, from the total mass of trading people, the top of the merchant world is still noticeable, representatives of which received the title of guests from the government. These largest merchants also performed the role of financial agents of the government - on his instruction, they led foreign trade in the fur, sweat, rhubarb, etc., carried out contracts for construction work, purchased food for the needs of the army, collected taxes, customs duties, kabatsky money, etc. . Guests attracted smaller merchants to perform contractual and spupid operations, sharing huge baryrs from the sale of wine and salt. Spipe and contracts were an important source of capital accumulation.

In the hands of individual merchant families Sometimes large capital accumulated. N. Svetshnikov belonged to rich salt fishery. Stoyanov in Novgorod and F. Emelyanov in Pskov were the first people in their cities; With their opinion, not only the governor, but also the royal government was considered. To the guests, as well as close to them on the position of commercial people from the living room and cloth hundred (associations), adjoined the top of the citizens, called the "best", "large" landed people.

Trading people begin to advocate the government in defense of their interests. In jobs, they asked to ban English merchants to trade in Moscow and in other cities, with the exception of Arkhangelsk. Chelobiti was satisfied with the Tsarist Government in 1649. This measure was motivated by political considerations - the fact that the British executed their king Charles I.

Large changes in the economy of the country were reflected in the Customs Charter of 1653 and in the Novotor Charter of 1667, the head of the Embassy Order of A. L. Ordin-Nachokin took part in the creation of the latter. According to the mercantalistic views of that time, the new trade charter was noted the special importance of trade for Russia, since "in all states of surrounding in the first state-owned free and profitable trading to collect duties and for nationwide eradicates of worldly with all sorts of gently saved." The customs charter of 1653 canceled many small trading fees, which remained on the time of feudal fragmentation, and instead they were introduced one so-called ruble duty - 10 kopecks. From the ruble for selling salt, 5 kopecks. From the ruble from all other goods. In addition, an increased duty was introduced for foreign merchants who sold goods within Russia. In the interests of the Russian merchants, the Novotogo Charter of 1667 increased even more increased customs fees from foreign traders.

2. The beginning of the formation of the feudal-absolutist monarchy

King and boyars

Large shifts in the economic and public life of the Russian people were accompanied by changes in the political stroke of Russia. In the XVII century There is a folding of the feudal-absolutist (autocratic) state in Russia. A characteristic of the estate-representative monarchy is existence next to the royal power. Boyarskaya Duma and Zemsky Cathedrals no longer complied with the trends towards strengthening the domination of the nobility in the conditions of further aggravation of the class struggle. The military and economic expansion of neighboring states also demanded a more advanced political organization of the domination of the nobles. The transition to absolutism, which has not yet completed by the end of the XVII century, was accompanied by the dying of the Zemsky Cathedrals and all the great subordination of the spiritual power of secular.

Since 1613, the Romanov Dynasty reigned in Russia, who considered themselves the heirs of the former Moscow kings on the female line. Mikhail Fedorovich (1613-1645), his son Alexey Mikhailovich (1645-1676), Sons Alexei Mikhailovich - Fyodor Alekseevich (1676-1682), Ivan and Peter Alekseevichi (after 1682).

All public affairs in the XVII century. Named from the royal name. In the "Cathedral Code" of 1649, a special chapter was introduced "On the state of honor and how his state health to protect", threatening the death penalty for the performance against the king, the governor and ordered people "Skop and plot", under which all massive folk speeches were understood. Now and the nearest royal relatives began to be considered as the sovereign "Holopes" - subjects. In the prospects to the king, even noble boyars were called themselves with dimensional names (Ivashko, Petrushko, etc.). In appeals to the king, the estate differences were strictly observed: the seruners called themselves "hills", the peasants and Posad people are "orphans", and the spiritual "mantiles". The appearance of the king on the squares and streets of Moscow was furnished with a magnificent solemnity and a complex ceremonial, emphasized the power and inaccessibility of the royal power.

The state affairs of the Boyar Duma, who was going and in the absence of the king. The most important cases dealt with the royal proposal to "thorough" about a particular issue; The decision began formula: "The king pointed out and the boyars sentenced." In the Duma, as to the highest legislative and judicial institution, the most influential and rich feudals of Russia were members of the born princely surnames and the nearest relatives of the king. But along with them in the Duma, the representatives of irregular surnames penetrated in the Duma - Duma Nobles and Duma Decius, nominated for high posts in the state due to their personal merit. Along with some bureaucration of the Duma, there was a gradual limitation of its political influence. Next to the Duma, in the meetings of which all the twisted ranks took part, there was a secret, or the near Duma, who consisted of the king's proxies, who often did not relate to the twisted ranks.

Zemsky cathedrals

The government has long relied on support for such a source and representative institution, such as Zemstvo Cathedrals, resorting to the help of elected people from the nobility and the tops of the Puntion Society, mainly in difficult years of combating external enemies and in the internal difficulties associated with the collection of money for emergency needs. Zemstvo Cathedrals acted almost continuously during the first 10 years of the reign of Mikhail Romanova, having received the importance of a permanent establishment under government for a while. The Cathedral, who chose to the kingdom of Mikhail (1613), began almost three years. The following cathedrals were convened in 1616, 1619 and 1621.

After 1623, a long break was occurring in the activities of cathedrals related to the strengthening of the royal power. The new cathedral was convened in connection with the need to establish emergency cash fees from the population, as preparation for war with Poland was prepared. This cathedral did not diverge for three years. In the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich, Zemsky cathedrals were collected several times.

The Zemstvo Cathedrals were the establishment of a class character and consisted of three "ranks": 1) of the highest clergy led by the Patriarch - "Sangered Cathedral", 2) of the Boyar Duma and 3) elected from the nobles and from Posaly people. The criminal coat peasants may have participated only in the cathedral of 1613, and the landlords were completely removed from political affairs. Elections of representatives from the nobles and from the Poshesky people were always separately produced. The election protocol, "elected list," appeared to Moscow. Voters have provided "elected people" of the ordinances in which they stated their needs. The cathedral was opened by the royal speech, which said about the reasons for his convocation and set questions for elected. The discussion of the issues was made by individual class groups of the Cathedral, but the general cathedral decision was to be taken unanimously.

The political authority of the Zemsky Cathedrals, which was high in the first half of the XVII century, was not durable. The government further reluctantly resorted to the convening of Zemstvo Cathedrals, in which elected people sometimes acted as criticizing government events. The last Zemsky Cathedral was gathered in 1653 to decide on the reunification of Ukraine. After that, the government convened only the meetings of certain class groups (serve people, trading people, guests, etc.). However, the approval of the "whole Earth" was recognized as necessary for the election of the sovereign. Therefore, the collection of Moscow ranks in 1682 twice replaced the Zemsky Cathedral - at the beginning, when elected to the throne of Peter, and then, when electing two kings of Peter and Ivan, who should have rule together.

Zemstvo Cathedrals as the authorities of the Clarification were abolished by stringing absolutism, just as it took place in Western Europe.

Order system. Voevod

The country's management focused in numerous orders who made individual sectors. government controlled (Embassy, \u200b\u200bdischarge, the right, the order of a large treasury) or regions (order of the Kazan Palace, Siberian Order). The XVII century was the heyday of the order system: the number of orders in other years reached 50. However, in the second half of the XVII century. In a fragmented and bulky order, a well-known centralization is carried out. Orders related to the circle orders either united into one or several orders, although they preserved their independent existence, put on the general administration of one boyar, most often the trustee of the king. The intersections of the first type include, for example, the connected orders of the palace department: the Grand Palace, the palace vessel, the stone delivered stables. An example of the second type of associations can be the order of Boyarian F. A. Golovin to manage the Embassy, \u200b\u200bYamsky and Military maritime orders, as well as the wards of weapons, gold and silver affairs. An important innovation in the ordinary strict was the organization of the order of secret cases, a new institution, where the "boyars and spiritual people do not enter and do not know, except the king himself." This order for other orders performed control functions. The order of secret cases was arranged in order for the "royal thought and affairs to be fulfilled by all of his (royal) want."

The heads of most orders were a boyar or nobles, but the office work was held at the Permanent State of Dyakov and their assistants - the attain. Well met by administrative experience transmitted from generation to generation, these people fired all the orders. At the head of such important orders, as a discharge, the author's and the embassy, \u200b\u200bthere were spiritual devils, that is, the devils who had the right to sit in the Boyar Duma. The bureaucratic element was becoming increasingly important in the system of the folding absolutist state.

The huge territory of the state in the XVII century, as in the preceding time, shared on the counties. New in the organization of the government in the field was to reduce the importance of the Zemsky government. Everywhere the government focused in the hands of the governor sent from Moscow. Assistants of the governor were appointed to the large cities - "Comrades". Development of devils and funerals. Having granted the hut, where the governor was sitting, was the center of control of the county.

The service of the governor, like antique feeding, was considered "mercenary", that is, that brought income. Voivode used every reason to "feed" at the expense of the population. The arrival of the governor to the territory of the subordinate county was accompanied by the receipt of the "entry of the feed", on holidays to him were an offer, a special remuneration to the governor was brought during the feeding. The arbitrariness in the local administration especially felt social bases.

By 1678, the courtyards were completed. After that, the government replaced the existing strategic attachment (Soka - a unit of taxation, which included from 750 to 1800 tents of the land of the land in three fields) of the residential. This reform has increased the number of taxpayers, taxes are now charged with such layers of the population as "business people" (slaves who worked in the landlords), bobly (impoverished peasants), rural artisans, etc., who lived in their courtyards and previously not paid taxes . The reform aroused an increase in the population in the courtyards by landowners by combining them.

Armed forces

New phenomena take place in the organization of the Armed Forces of the state. The local nobility army was completed as a militia from the nobles and children of Boyar. Military service was still mandatory for all nobles. Noblemen and Boyars' children gathered in their districts for review according to the lists, where all the nobles were made, suitable for the service, hence the name "serviced people." Against the "Netchikov" (not to serve) taken measures taken. In the summer, the noble cavalry was usually stood at the foul cities. In the south, the gathering place was Belgorod.

Mobilization of local troops occurred extremely slowly, the army accompanied the huge summons and a large number of landlord servants.

Higher efficiency than the noble cavalry, the Sagittarius was distinguished - hiking warriors armed with firearms. However, the Streetsky army to the second half of the XVII century. It clearly did not meet the need to have a fairly maneuverable and combat armion. In peacetime, the Archers combined military service With small trade and crafts, as there was an insufficient bread and money salary. They were closely connected with the Posted Population and took part in the urban unrest of the XVII century.

The need to reorganize the military forces of Russia at the new basis was sharply felt in the first half of the XVII century. Preparing for the war for Smolensk, the government purchased a weapon in Sweden and Holland, hired foreign routine people and began to form the Russian regiments of the "new (ingenic) building" - soldier's "Ratar and Dragunsky. The training of these regiments was made on the basis of the original military art of the then time. The shelves were completed first from "free hoes", and then from among the "datic people", recruited from a certain number of peasant and Posherty. Lifetime service of dacket people, the introduction of uniform weapons in the form of lighter than they pegged, muskets and carbines with a flint castle gave the shelves of a new building some features of the regular army.

Due to the increase in cash revenues, the costs of the army maintenance were steadily increased.

Strengthening nobility

Changes in the state severe occurred in close connection with the change in the structure of the dominant class of feudalists, which was based on autocracy. The top of this class was a boyars aristocracy, replenishing the court ranks (under the word "rank" was not yet official position, but belonging to a certain group of the population). The highest were twisted ranks, then the ranks of Moscow, behind them - the ranks of the city. They were all included in the category of serunel people "in the Fatherland", unlike the servicant people "on the instrument" (Sagittarov, Pushkje, soldiers, etc.). Serday people in Fatherland, or nobles, began to develop into a closed group with special privileges transmitted by inheritance. From the middle of the XVII century. The transition of instrument serve people in the rows of nobles was closed.

Of great importance in eliminating the differences between separate layers of the dominant class had the abolition of locality. The locality is adversely reflected on the combat capability of the Russian army. Sometimes before the fight, the warrior instead of decisive actions against the enemy joined the disputes about which of them above the "place". Therefore, according to the decree on the cancellation of locality, in the past years, "in many of their states, and in the embassy, \u200b\u200bin all kinds of deposits, they were reinforced from those cases of great dirtiffs and tricks and destruction and enemies of joy, and between them - God the opposite business - dislike and great , prolonged hostility. " Cancellation of the settlement (1682) strengthened the significance of the nobility in the state apparatus and the army, since the locality obstructed the nomination of the nobles to prominent military and administrative posts.

3. Folk uprisings

The position of the peasants and urban lower

The serfdom of all their severity lay down on the wide masses, on the peasants and the Posad population.

The position of the peasants was severe not only in the economic, but IW of legal terms. The landowners and their cuzzers beat the peasants with the scales, they were sharpened in the shackles for any provinity. The spontaneous manifestation of the struggle against the oppressors was the frequent killings of landowners and peasant shoots. The peasants left the spaced places, hidden in remote and minorized areas in the Volga region and in the south of Russia, especially on Don.

In the city, property and social differences among the Posad people were emphasized by the government themselves who divided the landing people on prosperity on "good" (or "best"), "heart" and "young". Most landing people belonged to young people. The best people They were numbered, but they belonged to them the greatest number of shopping shops and fishing establishments (Salotopni, Zakobini, Dzerkini, etc.). They abandoned debt obligations and often ruined young people. The contradictions between the best and young landed people were invariably manifested in the election of the Zemsky Starright, who made the layout of the filings and doubues in the suburban community. Attempts of young people to hold their candidates to the Zemsky's heads of their candidates, which accused them of the mound against the royal government. Young Posad People, "Thinking Truths" and "From all evil deliverances and from the rule of violence," Zhuge hated urban "Mirohedov" and took part in all the uprisings of the XVII century.

The serfstone strongly suppressed any attempt to protest disadvantaged folk masses. The jams immediately reported to the warlords and the orders for "non-giving speeches on the sovereign." The arrested were tortured, which was produced three times. Recognized their guilt was punished with a whip on the square and link to distant cities, and sometimes the death penalty. The preserved three-time torture was released normally crippled for life. "Elvev" (denunciation) on political affairs was legalized in Russia the XVII century as one of the means of reprisals with popular discontent.

Urban uprisings

Contemporaries called the XVII century "rebellious" time. And indeed, in the preceding history of feudal-serfdom Russia, there was no such number of anti-refortion performances, as in the XVII century.

The largest of them in the middle and the second half of this century were urban uprisings 1648-1650, "Copper Bun" 1662, the peasant war under the leadership of Stepan Razin 1670-1671. A special place is "split". It began as a religious movement, found a later response in the folk masses.

Urban uprisings 1648-1650. Were directed against the boyars and government administration, as well as against the top of the landing people. Public discontent increased by the extreme sale of the state apparatus. Posad people were forced to give to the voivifiers and orders of bribes, "Posil". Craftsmen in cities forced to work for free and devils for free.

The main driving forces of these uprisings were young Posads and Sagittarius. The uprisings were urban, but in some areas covered the village.

Unrest in the cities began already in last years The reign of Mikhail Romanov, but resulted in the form of the uprising at his son and successor Alexei Mikhailovic. In the first years of his reign, the actual ruler of the state was the royal educator ("Uncle") - Boyar Boris Ivanovich Morozov. In its financial policy, Morozov relied on merchants, with whom it was closely related to the general trading operations, as its extensive defenders supplied Potash, resin and other products for exporting abroad. In search of new funds to replenish the royal treasury, the government on the advice of the spirit of Duma Decia N. Pure in 1646 replaced direct taxes with a tax on salt, which took up the visibility immediately almost three times. It is known that such a tax (Gabel) and in France caused in the same XVII century. Large folk unrest.

The hated salt tax was canceled in December 1647, but instead of income who came to the treasury from the sale of salt, the government resumed the collection of direct taxes - Streetsky and Yam's money, demanding payment for two years.

The excitements began in Moscow in the first days of June 1648. During the procession, a large crowd of landing people surrounded the king and tried to convey to him to job, with a complaint about the violence of Boyar and ordinary people. Guardian dispersed the jubiors. But the next day, Sagittariov and other target people joined the Posad people. The rebels broke into the Kremlin, in addition, they defeated the courtyards of some boyars, the Streethesky chiefs, merchants and orders. Duma deque clean was killed in his home. The rebels forced the government to issue L. Pleneyev, who made the Moscow city administration, and Plescheev was alveternly executed on the square as a criminal. The rebels demanded issuance and Morozov, but the king secretly sent him to an honorary reference to one of the northern monasteries. "Posad People, I am Moscow," supported by the Archers and Halls, forced the king to enter the square in front of the Kremlin Palace and give an oath promise to fulfill their requirements.

The Moscow uprising has found a wide response in other cities. There were rumors that in Moscow "strongly bother with a layer and a stone." The uprisings covered a number of northern and southern cities - Great Ustyug, Cherdin, Kozlov, Kursk, Voronezh, and others. In southern cities, where the Poshessic population was a few, the uprisings were led by Sagittsev. They sometimes joined the peasants of nearby villages. In the north, the main role belonged to the possession of people and the black-made peasants. Thus, the urban uprisings of 1648 were closely connected with the movement of the peasants. This is also indicated by the jobs of the landing people, submitted to the king Alexey during the Moscow Uprising: "All the people in the whole Moscow state and in its millions from such a false ride comes, as a result of which a large storm is rising in your royal capital of Moscow and in other many many Places, in cities and counties. "

The reference to the uprising in the commodity places suggests that the rebels may have been aware of the successes liberation movement In Ukraine, under the leadership of Bogdan Khmelnitsky, which began in spring the same. 1648

"Code" 1649

Armed performance of the city's bases and the Archers, which caused the confusion of the ruling circles, took advantage of the noblemen and the top of the merchants to present their current requirements to the government. In numerous jobs, nobles demanded the issuance of a salary and abolition of the "urgent years" for the check of runaway peasants, guests and commercial people sought the introduction of restrictions for foreigners trading, as well as the confiscation of privileged urban settlements, which were owned by large secular and spiritual feudals. The government was forced to give to the harassment of the nobles and the tops of the Posad and convened the Zemsky Cathedral to develop a new judiciary (deposition).

On the Zemsky Cathedral, convened on September 1, 1648 in Moscow, profits from 121 cities and counties. In the first place in the number of elected plates were provincial nobles (153 people) and Posal people (94 people). "Cathedral", or a new set of laws, was drawn up by a special commission, discussed by the Zemsky Cathedral and printed in 1649. Extremely large in the same time in circulation in 2 thousand copies.

The "Code" was compiled on the basis of a number of sources, including the "judicial judicial" 1550, Tsarist Decrees and the Lithuanian Statute. It consisted of 25 chapters divided into articles. The introductory chapter to "deposits" was established to "people of all sorts of ranks from a large and to a smaller order, the court and the rules were in all sorts of Delek All Roven." But this phrase had a purely declarative character, as in reality the "CHEP" claimed the estate privileges of the nobles and the tops of the Poshesky world. "Code" confirmed the right of the owners to transfer the estate to the estate, provided that the new landowner will bear military service. In the interests of the noble, it forbade a further increase in church land tenure. The peasants were finally fixed behind the landowners, and the "urgent summer" for the search for runaway peasants canceled. Nobles have now had the right to seek runaway peasants during an unlimited time. This meant a further strengthening of the fortress dependence of the peasants from the landowners.

"Clause" forbade the Boyars and the clergy to arrange their so-called white settlements in the cities, where their dependent people engaged in trade and craft lived; All people who fled from the Posad Trech should have come back to the landing community. These articles "Cutting" satisfy the requirements of the Poskiy population, who watched the prohibition of white Slobod, whose population, engaged in bargaining and crafts, was not burdened by landing and therefore successfully competed with black Slobod. The elimination of private-owner Slobod was directed against the remnants of feudal fragmentation and strengthened the city.

The "Cathedral Code" was more than 180 years old became the main legislative code of Russia, although many of his articles were canceled by further legislative acts.

Uprisings in Pskov and Novgorod

"Code" not only did not satisfy the wide ranges of landing people and peasants, but even more deepened class contradictions. The new uprisings of 1650 in Pskov and Novgorod were deployed in the situation of the struggle of young landing people and Sagittarov against the nobles and major trading people.

The reason for the uprising was the speculation of bread, which was conducted on the direct prescription of the authorities. The government was advantageous to inflate the prices of bread, since the payroll at this time with the Swedes for the reinforcements to Russia from the territories, who went to Sweden in the Stolban World of 1617, was partially not done with money, but in local market prices.

The main part in the Pskov uprising, which began on February 28, 1650, adopted landing people and Sagittarius. They took into custody of the Voyage and organized their own government in the Zeba led by Khlebnik Gavrila Demidov. On March 15, the uprising broke out in Novgorod, and thus, two large cities refused to obey the Tsarist government.

Novgorod lasted no more than a month and submitted to the royal governor Prince I. Khovansky, who immediately put in the prison of many participants of the uprising. Pskov continued to fight and successfully beat the attacks of the tsarist troops approached his walls.

The Government of the Rest of Pskovichi, led by Gavrila Demidov, held events that improved the position of urban bases. Zemskaya Izba took pressure on the food reserves that belonged to the nobles and merchants; At the head of the military forces, defeated the city, young Posads and Sagittarius were delivered; Some out of the noblemen are executed, who are shown in intercourse with the royal troops. Particular attention was paid to the raising peasants and landing people in the suburbs. Most suburbs (gdov, island, etc.) joined Pskov. A wide movement has begun in the village that swept the enormous territory from Pskov to Novgorod. The detachments of the peasants burned landlord estates, attacked small noble detachments, worried the rear of the Army of Khovansky. In Moscow and other cities, it was restless. The population discussed rumors about Pskov events and expressed their sympathy for the rebel Pskov. The government was forced to convene the Zemsky Cathedral, which decided to send a delegation of elected people to Pskov. The delegation persuaded Pskov's folding weapons, promising an amnesty to the rebel. However, this promise soon was broken, and the government sent Demidov together with other leaders of the uprising in the distant link. The Pskov Uprising lasted almost six months (March - August 1650), and the peasant movement in the Pskov Earth did not stop several years.

"Copper Riot"

The new urban uprising, called the "copper rebellion", occurred in Moscow in 1662. It was deployed in the conditions of economic difficulties caused by the long and ruin war of Russia with the responding speech (1654-1667), as well as the war with Sweden. Due to the lack of sulfue money, the government decided to produce a copper coin equalized by the cost of silver money. Initially, the copper money was eagerly taken (they began to be released from 1654), but copper cost 20 times cheaper than silver, and copper money was produced in excessive quantities. In addition, the "thieves", fake money appeared. They were minted by the cash masters themselves, who were under the auspices of the royal father-in-law Boyari Mi-Loslavsky, mixed in this matter.

Copper money gradually began to fall in price; For one silver money began to give 4, and then 15 copper money. The government itself contributed to the fall of the course of copper money, demanding that taxes in the treasury were paid by silver coins, while the complaint of the steady people were issued with copper. Silver began to disappear from the appeal, and this led to a further drop in the value of copper money.

From the introduction of copper money most suffered as landline people and serviced people in the device: Sagittarius, Pushkari, and others. Posad people were obliged to pay cash contributions to the treasury by silver money, and they paid copper with them. "For copper money, they do not sell, silver nowhere to take," said "acceptable letters" distributed among the population. The peasants refused to sell bread and other edible supplies on impaired copper money. Bread prices rose with incredible speed, despite good crops.

Dissatisfaction of the landing people turned into a big uprising. In the summer of 1662, landing people defeated some boyars and merchant courtyards in Moscow. A large crowd went from the city to the village of Kolomenskoye village in the near Moscow, where the Tsar Alexey lived at this time to demand a decrease in taxes and cancels of copper money. The "silent" king, as Alexey Churchmen called hypocritically called, promised to investigate the case of copper money, but immediately treacherously violated his promise. The troops caused to them were learned by the cruel violence with the rebels. The man 100 drowned in the Moscow River during the flight, killed, wounded, or in prison was more than 7 thousand. Causes and torture followed the first massacre.

Peasant War under the leadership of Stepan Razin

The most powerful folk uprising of the XVII century. There was a peasant war of 1670-1671. Under the leadership of Stepan Razin. It was the direct result of the exacerbation of class contradictions in Russia in the second half of the XVII century. The heavy position of the peasants led to the strengthening of escapes to the outskirts. The peasants went to remote places on the Don and in the Volga region, where they hoped to hide from the opposite operation. Don Cossacks were not socially uniform. "Domoviti" Cossacks most accommodated in driving places at the bottom stream of Don with its rich fish facilities. It reluctantly took into his composition of new aliens, the poor ("Golkutva") Cossacks. "Golyutba" accumulated mainly on the lands on the top flow of Don and his tributaries, but also here the position of the runaway peasants and the holders was usually difficult, since the domain Cossacks prohibited them to steal the land, and there were no new fishing sites for the aliens. Gauntled Cossacks were especially suffering from lack of bread on Don.

A large number of runaway peasants also seduced in the areas of Tambov, Penza, Simbirsk. Here, the peasants founded new villages and villages, swallowed empty land. But after them immediately went landlords. They received sick diplomas from the king to allegedly empty lands; The peasants who were settled on these lands, again fell into a serf dependence on landowners. In the cities, the walking people were concentrated, who mined metage by random earnings.

The heavy colonial oppression was tested by the peoples of the Volga region - Mordva, Chuvashi, Mari, Tatars. Russian landowners captured their lands, fishing and hunting grounds. At the same time, state taxes and duties increased.

On Don and in the Volga region a large number of people who hostile to serfs have accumulated. Among them were a lot of settlers exiled to the distant Volga cities for participating in the uprisings and various sorts of performances against the government and the governor. Razin slogans found a hot response among Russian peasants and oppressed peoples of the Volga region.

The beginning of the peasant war was put on Don. Gauntled Cossacks made a campaign to the shores of the Crimea and Turkey. But the domain Cossacks prevented them to break through to the sea, afraid of a military collision with the Turks. The Cossacks led by Ataman Stepan Timofeevich Razini moved to the Volga and nearby Tsaritsyn captured the caravan of ships, which went to Astrakhan. Having freely sailing past Tsaritsyn and Astrakhan, the Cossacks entered the Caspian Sea and headed towards the mouth of the Yaika River (Urals). Razin took the Yaitsky town (1667), many Yaik Cossacks joined his army. The next year, the detachment of Razin on 24 courts went to the shores of Iran. Righting the Caspian coast from Derbent to Baku, the Cossacks reached my decision. During negotiations, Persians suddenly attacked them and killed 400 people. In response, the Cossacks defeated the city of Ferahabad. On the way back in the pork island, near the mouth of the Kura, the Iranian fleet attacked the Cossack trial, but suffered a full defeat. Cossacks returned to Astrakhan and sold captured prey here.

A good sea campaign on Yaik and to the shores of Iran sharply increased the authority of razin among the population of Don and the Volga region. Fucked peasants and slaves, walking people, oppressed peoples of the Volga region only and waited for the signal in order to raise an open uprising against their oppressors. In the spring of 1670, Razin reappeared again on the Volga with a 5-thousand Cossack army. Astrakhan opened his gate; Sagittarius and landing people went to the side of the Cossacks everywhere. At this stage, the movement of the difference has grown the framework of the campaign 1667-1669. and resulted in a powerful peasant war.

Razin with major forces went up the Volga. Saratov and Samara met the rebels with a bell ringing, bread and salt. But under the fortified symbirsk army was held for a long time. To the north and west of this city, the peasant war was raised. The big squad of rebels under the team Mikhail Kharitonov took Korsun, Saransk, mastered the penza. Unite with the detachment of Vasily Fedorov, he headed towards the ball. Russian peasants, Mordva, Chuvashi, Tatars rose to war almost shortly, not even waiting for the arrival of Razin detachments. The peasant war approached Moscow and closer. Cossack Atamans were traded by Alatar, Dameman, Kurdysham. Kozmodemyansk and fishing village Lyskovo on the Volga joined the uprising. Cossacks and Lyskovtsy occupied the fortified Makaryev Monastery in the immediate vicinity of Nizhny Novgorod.

At the upper course of Don, the military actions of the rebels were led by the brother of Stepan Razin Frol. The uprising spread to the Earth to the south of Belgorod, inhabited by Ukrainians and wearing the name of Slobodskoy Ukraine. Everywhere "men", as the peasants called the royal documents, rose with weapons in their hands and together with the oppressed peoples of the Volga region fiercely fought against serfs. The city of Tsivilsk in Chuvashia was besieged "Russian people and Chyuzha".

The nobles of Shatsky County complained that they could not go to the royal gravifers "from the rolling of men-maudists." In the district of Kadoma, the same "man-made men" arranged to this place in order to delay the royal troops.

Peasant War 1670-1671 covered the large territory. Razin's slogans and his associates raised the oppressed layers of society on the struggle, compiled by the differences "Adorable" diplomas called all the "boal and optocrium" to end with worldly bloodsuckers, join the razin's army. According to the story of an eyewitness of the uprising, Razin spoke to the peasants and landing people in Astrakhan: "For business, brothers. Now revenge Tiranes, which still kept you in captivity worse than Turks or pagans. I came to give you freedom and deliverance. "

Don and Zaporizhia Cossacks, peasants and slaves, young Posads, seruners in the device, Mordva, Chuvash, Mari, Tatars were poured into the ranks. All of them united the common goal - the struggle against the serfs of the oppression. In the cities who switched to the side of Razin, the Voivodskaya power was destroyed and the management of the city turned into the hands of elected. However, struggling against the feudal blowing, the rebels remained the rearrs. They stood for a "good king" and spread the rumor that Tsarevich Alexey was going with them, who at this time in reality was no longer alive.

The peasant war forced the royal government to mobilize all his strength to suppress her. Under Moscow, for 8 days, a review of 60s noble army. In Moscow itself, a strict police regime was installed, since the excitements were afraid among the urban bases.

A decisive collision between the rebel and royal troops occurred under Symbirsk. In the detachments, great reinforcements from the Tatar, Chuvish and Mordvoy flinch, but the siege of the city was dragged for a whole month, and this allowed the royal grades to collect great strength. Under the Symbirian troops, Razin suffered from the regiments of an ingenic system (October 1670). Holding to gain a new army, Razin went to the Don, but there was a treacherously captured by Domotiti Cossacks and taken to Moscow, where he was subjected in June 1671 to the painful execution - quarters. But the uprising continued after his death. Astrakhan held longer than everyone. She surrendered to the tsarist troops at the end of 1671.

Split

The fierce class struggle, unfolding in Russia in the second half of the XVII century, was reflected in such a public movement, which was the split of the Orthodox Church. Bourgeois historians emphasized only his church side in the split and therefore they paid the main attention to the ritual disagreements between the Old Believers and the dominant church. In fact, the split reflected both class contradictions in Russian society. It was not only religious, but also by the public movement, which entended the religious shell class interests and requirements.

The reason for the split of the Russian Church was disagreements on the correction of church rites and books. Translations of church books into Russian were made from Greek scripts in different timeAnd already the scripts themselves were not absolutely the same, and the correspondencers of books additionally contributed changes and distortion. In addition, rites not known in the Greek and South Slavic lands were established in Russian church practice.

The question of the correction of church books and rituals received special sharpness after delivery to Nikon's Patriarchast. The new Patriarch, the son of the peasant from the surroundings of Nizhny Novgorod, who murdered to the monks under the name of Nikon, quickly advanced in church circles. Established to the Patriarchs (1652), he took the position of the first person in the state after the king. The king called Nikon with his "sobernoy friend."

Nikon has energetically started the correction of liturgical books and rites, seeking to bring Russian church practice in line with Greek. The government supported these beginnings of Nikon, since the introduction of uniformity of the church service and the strengthening of the centralization of the church management corresponded to the interests of absolutism. But the fastened absolutism was contrary to theocratic ideas of Nikon, who compared the power of the Patriarch with the Sun, and the power of the king with the Moon, only reflecting the sunlight. Over the course of several years, Nikon has mastered secular affairs. These contradictions led to the quarrel of the king with Nikon, which ended the lowest in the ambitious patriarch. Cathedral of 1666 deprived Nikon Patriarch Sana, but at the same time approved his innovations and betrayed Anathema those who refused to accept them.

From this cathedral, the division of the Russian Church on the Orthodox dominant and Orthodox Old Believers, i.e., rejecting church reforms of Nikon begins. And the one and the other church equally considered themselves the only Orthodox; The official church was called the Old Believers "Raskolniki", the Old Believers called Orthodox "Nikonians". Raskolnikov's movement was headed by Protopop Avvakum Petrovich, too, nizhegorodets, a person with the same indomitable and powerful nature, as well as Nikon himself. "We see, Yako Winter Horce Knight; The heart of Overablo and legs shoved, "wrote later about the correction of the church books Avvakum.

After the cathedral of 1666, the persecution supporters collapsed. However, it was not easy to deal with the split, as he found support among peasants and landing people. Theological disputes were few available for them, but the old one was their usual, and the newly imposed forcibly seruating state and supporting his church.

Open resistance to the royal troops provided the Solovki monastery. Located on the Islands of the White Sea, this richest of northern monasteries was at the same time a strong fortress, was protected by stone walls, had a considerable amount of guns and food reserves for many years. The monks that have stood for an agreement with the royal government were removed from the management of the monastery; The power took the Archers, exiled to the north difference and chapels. Under the influence of the peasant war under the leadership of the peasant war under the leadership of Razin Solovkaya uprising, arising on the basis of the split, turned into an open antifeodal movement. The siege of the Solovetsky Monastery lasted eight years (1668-1676). The monastery was taken only as a result of treason.

The strengthened opposition of a serfstone led to the further development of the split, despite the most severe government prosecution. The Avvakum Protopop after a volatile stay in the earthen prison was burned in 1682 in the emptyersk at the fire and his death even more strengthened the "old faith". Old Believers fled to the outskirts of the state, in the deaf forests and swamps. However, the religious ideology gave this movement to the reaction. Among his participants, the rattles of the close end of the world and the need for self-immolation began to avoid the "antichrist" power. At the end of the XVII century. The self-immolation was made with a frequent phenomenon in the north of Russia.

4. International Regulation of Russia

Russia was severely weakened by a long-term Polish-Swedish intervention and lost large and economically important areas in the West. Particularly severe was the loss of Smolensk and the coast of the Gulf of Finland, as a direct access to the Baltic Sea. The return of these original Russian territories that had enormous importance for the entire economic life of the country remained the immediate task of Russia's foreign policy in the XVII century. An equally important task was to fight for the reunification of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands within the framework of a single Russian state, as well as in the defense of the southern borders from the raids of the Crimeans and the conquest campaigns of the Turks.

"Azov Seat". Zemsky Cathedral 1642

The unsuccessful outcome of the Smolensk War complicated the international situation of Russia. An especially anxious was the situation on the southern outskirts of the country, which the robber raids of the Crimean Tatars were constantly devastated. Only in the first half of the XVII century. The Crimean Tatars who were in vassal dependence on Turkey took up to 200 thousand Russian people. To protect the southern borders, the Russian government in the 1930s of the XVII century. It began to repair and build new defensive structures - the so-called die-cast damns, consisting of intercourse, pvv, shafts and fortified towns, narrow chain stretching along the southern frontiers. Defensive lines made it difficult for the Crimeans to the inner counties of Russia, but their construction was worth the Russian people of tremendous effort.

Two Turkish fortresses stood at the mouth of the largest southern rivers: Ochakov - when the Dnieper and Buga are shifted in the sea, Azov - when there is no dona in the Azov Sea. And though in the Don pool there were no Turkish settlements, the Turks kept the Azov as the basis of their possessions in the Black Sea and Azov .

Meanwhile in the first half of the XVTI century. Russian settlements on Don reached almost to Azov. Don Cossacks grew into greater military strength and usually acted in Union with Zaporozhets against the Turkish troops and the Crimean Tatars. Often, light Cossack vessels, deceiving the Turkish custody under the azov, broke through with the Don Sleeves in the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov. Hence, the Cossack fleet was sent to the shores of the Crimea and Malaya Asia, making raids on the Crimean and Turkish cities. For the Turks, Cossack trips on Cafa (the current Feodosia) and Sinop (in Malaya Asia) were especially memorable, when these largest Black Sea cities were ruin. Wanting to prevent the Cossack fleet to penetrate the Azov Sea, the Turkish government kept the military squadron at the mouth, but the Cossack sea stops with a team of 40- 50 people still successfully broke through through Turkish barriers to the Black Sea.

In 1637, using the internal and external difficulties of the Ottoman Empire, the Cossacks approached the Azov and took it after an eight-week siege. It was not a sudden raid, but a real regular siege using artillery and the organization of earthworks. According to the Cossacks, they "towers Many and the walls of the IS of guns poured. And they swallowed ... beside the whole hail, and the subpople was let down. "

The loss of Azov was extremely sensitive for Turkey, which thus lost its most important fortress in the Azov. However, the main Turkish forces were distracted by the war with Iran, and the Turkish expedition against Azov could take place only in 1641. The Turkish army directed for the siege of Azov, many times the Cossack garrison was many times in the city, had a siege artillery and was supported by a powerful fleet. The precipitated Cossacks beat fiercely. They reflected 24 Turkish attacks, caused a huge damage to Turks and forced them to remove the siege. Nevertheless, the question of Azov was not allowed, because Turkey did not want to abandon this important fortress on the bank of Don. Since some Cossacks could not defend the Azov against the overwhelming Turkish forces, then before the Russian government there was a question whether it was necessary to lead the war for the Azov or refuse him.

To solve the issue of Azov in Moscow, the Zemsky Cathedral was convened in 1642. The elected people unanimously offered to leave Azov for Russia, but at the same time complained about their difficult position. The noblemen accused of ordinary people in extortion with the distribution of places and money, Poshesky people complained about heavy duties and cash payments. In the province there were rumors about the ambulance "smoothie" in Moscow and the universal uprising against the boyars. The position within the state was so disturbing that it was impossible to think about a new heavy, long war. The government refused to further protect Azov and offered to the Don Cossacks to leave the city. Cossacks left the fortress, raving it to the ground. The defense of Azov was for a long time in folk songs, prosaic and poetic poses. One of these stories ends with words, as if attending the heroic struggle for Azov: "There was the Cossacks of the Glory of Eternal, and the Turks of the Eternal Warrennis."

War with Poland for Ukraine and Belarus

The largest foreign policy event of the XVII century, in which Russia was attended, there was a long war of 1654-1667. This war, which began as a war of Russia with a response to Ukraine and Belarus, soon turned into the largest international conflict, which was attended by Sweden, the Ottoman Empire and its vassal states - Moldova and the Crimean Khanate. According to your value for Eastern Europe, the war is 1654-1667. It can be put on a par with a thirty-year war.

Military actions opened in the spring of 1654. Part of the Russian troops was aimed at Ukraine for joint actions with the Army of Bogdan Khmelnitsky against the Crimean Tatars and Poland. The main forces of the Russian command focused on the Belarusian theater, where they were supposed to apply decisive blows on the troops of the Shankhetsky Poland. The beginning of the war was marked by the great successes of Russian troops. Less than two years (1654-1655) Russian troops were traded by Smolensky and important cities of Belarus and Lithuania: Mogilev, Vitebsk, Minsk, Vilnius (Vilnius), Kovno (Kaunas) and Grodno. Everywhere, Russian troops found the support of Russian and Belarusian peasants and the urban population. Even the official Polish sources recognized that, wherever the Russians came, everywhere "Many people gather crowds". In the cities, artisans and merchants refused to oppose Russian troops. The peasant detachments throat the Pansky estates. Military successes in Belarus were achieved with the support of the detachments of the Ukrainian Cossacks.

Significant success was also achieved by Russian troops and squads of Khmelnitsky, acting in Ukraine. In the summer of 1655, they moved to the West and during the fall freed from the Polish-shine oppression of Western Ukrainian lands up to Lviv.

Russian war with Sweden

The relaxation of the Commonwealth prompted the Swedish king Charles X Gustav to declare to her under an insignificant war. Meeting the weak resistance, the Swedish troops occupied almost all Poland along with her capital Warsaw, as well as part of Lithuania and Belarus, where the Swedes supported the largest Lithuanian magnate Janus Radzivill. Sweden intervention has dramatically changed the balance of power in Eastern Europe. Easy victories in Poland significantly strengthened the position of Sweden, established on the shores of the Baltic Sea. Considering that the Polish army has long lost its combat capability, the Russian government has concluded a truce with Poland to Vilno and the beginning of the war against Sweden (1656-1658).

In this war, the issue of obtaining Russia's access to the Baltic Sea was important. Russian troops took Koknes (Cockuxezen) in Western Dvina and began the siege of Riga. At the same time, another Russian detachment took Nienshanz on the Neva and besieged Noteburg (nut).

Russia's war with Sweden distracted the main forces of both states from the Commonwealth, where the widespread popular movement against the Swedish invaders began, which led to the purification of the territory of Poland from the Swedish troops. The government of the Polish king Yana Kazimir, not wanting to put up with the loss of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands, resumed the struggle against Russia. The price of territorial concessions addressed in 1660 with Sweden Olivsky world, which made it possible to throw all the armed forces against Russian troops. This prompted the Moscow Government to conclude a truce at the beginning, and then the world with Sweden (Cardisian world of 1661). Russia was forced to abandon all his acquisitions received in the Baltic States during the Russian-Swedish War.

Andrusovsky truce 1667

Military actions resumed in 1659 developed unfavorable for Russian troops left Minsk, Borisov and Mogilev. In Ukraine russian army Besed defeat from the Polish-Crimean forces under wonderful. Soon, however, the promotion of the Poles was suspended. A prolonged war began, exhausting the strength of both parties.

Meanwhile, the voltage caused by the war exacerbated the domestic political situation both in Russia and in the commitory speech. In Russia, the "copper riot" broke out, the oppositional movement of the magnates and the gentry, dissatisfied with the politics of Yana Kazimir, arose in the Commonwealth. Exhausted opponents ended the long war in 1667 by Andrusovsky truce for a period of 13 and a half years.

Negotiations in Andrusov (near Smolensk) led an outstanding diplomat, head of the Embassy Order of Afanasy Lavrentievich Ordin-Nachokin, who received the title of "royal large press and state-owned Great Embassy of the Savings." According to the agreement reached, Russia kept Smolensk with its surrounding territory and Left Bank. The city of Kiev on the right bank of the Dnieper was transferred to the ownership of Russia for two years; Belarus and Right Bank Ukraine remained under the authority of the Commonwealth.

Andrusovsky truce 1667 did not allow complex issues faced by Russia. Ukraine turned out to be divided into two parts. The left bank of it, together with Kiev, reunited with Russia, has become an opportunity for economic and cultural development. Right-Bank Ukraine has experienced all the horrors of the Crimean Tatar invasions and remained under the rule of Polish Panov.

Sweden in the Cardis world retained in his possession of the Russian coast of the Finnish Bay, the only value of which for Sweden was only that Russia, the largest country of Europe, was deprived of direct access to the Baltic Sea. Thus, a constant threat of the emergence of a new military conflict between Russia and Sweden was created.

The question of Russia's relations with the Crimean Khanate and Turkey remains unresolved. Azov remained the Turkish fortress, and the Crimean Hordes continued to attack the southern outskirts of Russia.

Russian-Turkish War 1676-1681

At the end of 1666, Turkey's war began with a response speech, which lasted with little breaks over 30 years. Turks claimed not only to the right bank, but also to the left bank of bank. The threat of Turkish aggression, which hung over the largest Slavic states - Poland and Russia, contributed to the Russian-Polish rapprochement. Already in 1672, on the eve of one of the conciliatory trips to Turkey, compulcement, the Russian government warned Sultan about his willingness to assist the Polish king: "We teach the fishery to repair and our commandment will send the Don Atamans and Cossacks, so that they are on Don and the Black Sea Any military fishery had. " Acting this way, in Moscow, they were convinced that the Turks intend "not tokmo the Polish state to ruin and take possession, but also to all the surrounding Christian states to seize."

Turkey, nevertheless, two months after receiving this diplomas, moved his troops against Poland and took possession of Kamenz - the largest fortress of podolia. Russian diplomacy has developed energetic activities on the organization of anti-scienture coalition. In 1673, the English, French and Spanish governments were invited to joint military actions against the "General Christian Enemy - the Turkish Sultan and the Crimean Khan". However, Western European states, between which there were large contradictions and which were also interested in the preservation of their trade privileges in the Ottoman Empire, refused to take any actions against the Turks.

The Russian government was not afraid of the possible performance of the Turks against Russia. In 1676, Turkey concluded peace with Poland, and in the summer of 1677. The huge Turkish army of Ibrahim-Pasha and Crimean Khan Selim Girea moved to the Ukrainian fortress on the right bank of the Dnieper - Chigirin, intending to master in the future. The Turkish command was confident that the small garrison of the fortress, consisting of Russian detachments and Ukrainian Cossacks, will open the gate of the 100,000th Army of the Turks and the Crimeans. But the Russian-Ukrainian army under the command of Boyarina G. Romodanovsky and hetman I. Samoilovich, hurrying to help the garrison of the deposited Chigirin, in August 1677, in the battles for crossing the Dnieper, pirates were inflicted, forced them to relieve the siege of Chigirin and hastily retreat.

In the summer of the next 1678, the Turks again undertook a siege of Chigirin and although they seized the dilapidated fortress, but they could not hold it. Russian sources note that the Turks, meeting the "strong and courageous standing and in their troops the Great, August, against the 20th day, at midnight ... ran back." After long negotiations between Russia and Turkey in 1681, 20-year-old truce was concluded in Bakhchisara. Sultan recognized Russia's right to Kiev and promised to stop ragging the Crimeans on her land.

Crimean hiking 1687 and 1689.

Although Sultan swore "terrible and firm an oath ... The name of the Sky and Earth" did not violate the conditions of the Bakhchisarai truce enshrined next year by the Constantinople peace treaty, the Crimeans continued to ruin Ukrainian lands and southern regions of Russia. At the same time, Sultan was able to intensify his aggression against other European states by sending liberated armed forces against them. Under these conditions, an antiturketic coalition of European states arose, the participants of which (Austria, Poland and Venice) sought to involve both Russia and Russia. The Russian government of the princess Sophia (1682- 1689) put an indispensable condition for their participation in the Holy League Conclusion of the "Eternal World" with worn, confirming the conditions of the Androvsky truce. "The Eternal World" (1686) was a fracture in relations between Russia and Poland and contributed to the unification of the efforts of two states in the fight against Turkey.

By fulfilling its allied commitments to Poland and other members of the League, Russia organized two campaigns to the Crimea. Already during the preparations for the first campaign, the properties of the local cavity were negatively affected: in its ranks there was a discipline weak, the fees passed extremely slowly, and some of the disadvantaged nobility in the sign of disbelief in good luck of the hike arrived in mourning clothes and with black horses. Finally, in the spring of 1687, the 100,000th army (partly consisted of the regiments of a new building), accompanied by a huge route, moved to the Crimea. Moving along the scaled steppe tatars, severely suffering from lack of water and losing horse makeup, the Russian army did not reach the Crimea. She had to return to Russia, having lost a large number of people during the exhausting campaign.

To avoid hostilities in the conditions of summer heat, the government organized the second Crimean campaign (1689) in early spring, and already in May, the Russian army reached revealed. But this time Russian failed to succeed. Favorite printed Sophia Prince V. V. Golitsyn, who commanded the Russian army in both campaigns, was a good diplomat, but turned out to be a unlucky commander. In connection with the sluggish actions of Golitsyn, who abandoned the general battle and retreated from the perk, in Moscow, even walked the senses, which, however, were unreliable that the indecision of the prince was explained by the fact that the Turks were bribed.

Despite the unsuccessful results of the Crimean Hiking, Russia made a significant contribution to the struggle against the Turkish aggression, since these hikes distracted the basic forces of Tatars, and Sultan thus lost to support the numerous Crimean cavalry. This most favorable conditions were created for the successful actions of the Allies of Russia on the Antiturch Coalition on other theaters of the war.

International relations between Russia

Russia occupied a prominent place in the international relations of the XVII century. And exchanged embassies with the largest countries of Europe and Asia. Particularly lively intercourse with Sweden, the speech of compulcient, France, Spain, as well as with the Austrian emperor, "Cessera", as official Russian documents called it. Of great importance also had connections with Italy, primarily with Roman Kuria and Venice. Constant connections were maintained with Turkey and Iran, Central Asian Khunches and China. Relations with China, Iran and the Khanshes of Central Asia, as a rule, were peaceful.

The Embassy Order, who made intercourse with foreign states, was a very important institution, at the head of which they were in most cases not a boyars, but spiritual devils, that is, people of more thank birth, but well-aware in international affairs. The high meaning of the duma dequeble of the Embassive Order was emphasized by the fact that foreigners were called "Chancellor".

Russian embassies in the XVII century. They appeared in almost all major capitals of Western Europe, and Russian merchants led the lively trade with Sweden, the speech of compulcute and Nemny cities. A significant number of Russian merchants visited Stockholm, Riga and other cities.

In turn, trading cases attracted a large number of foreigners to Russia. Many of them took Russian citizenship and remain in Russia forever. Initially, they miley courtyards among the Russians, and from the middle of the XVII century. In Moscow outside the earthly city, on the "coch", a special German Sloboda emerged. It has no longer over 200 yards. In spite of the German, the German actually lived in it, since the Germans were usually called not only the Germans, but also the Scots, the British, Dutch, etc. Almost three-quarters of the population of German Sloboda were the military, the rest Foreigners were doctors, artisans, etc. Thus, the Sloboda was populated by the advantage of the wealthy people. In German Sloboda, they built houses on the Western European model, had the Protestant Church (Kirk). However, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe inhabitants of the German Sloboda as people of a higher culture compared with the Russian population is greatly exaggerated.

The "German" customs had an inflated manner on the top of the Russian society. Some Russian Velmazby arranged their homely decoration on the overseas pattern, began to wear foreign clothes. Prince V. Golitsyn.

Strengthen in the XVII century. and cultural connections of Russia with Western Europe. By this time, the emergence of a number of translations in Russia in Russia in various branches of knowledge. The courtya was compiled at the courtyard, a peculiar newspaper with news of foreign events.

The long-standing ties of Russia with the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula continued to expand. Representatives of the Bulgarian, Serbian and Greek clergy received "alms" in Russia in the form of money gifts, part of the aliens remained forever in Russian monasteries and cities. Scientists of the Greeks were engaged in translations of books from Greek and Latin, served as editors ("Prinker") on the printed courtyard. They were often teachers in rich families, like Ukrainian monks, usually pets of the Kiev Great Academy. The influence of Kievans especially intensified by the end of the XVII century, when many of them occupied senior positions in the church hierarchy.

Especially significant was the impact of Russian culture on Bulgaria and Serbs, who were under Turkish ig. The visitors of Bulgarians and Serbs hired a large number of books printed in Moscow and Kiev to their homeland. The opening of the first typography in Iasas (Moldova) in 1640 occurred with the help of Kiev Metropolitan Peter Mogile. Communication with the Russian and Ukrainian peoples had enormous importance for the struggle of the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula against the Turkish oppression.

In the XVII century, Russia's connections with the peoples of the Transcaucasia are enhanced. Georgian and Armenian colonies existed in Moscow and left a memory of themselves in the names of the streets (small and large Georgians, Armenian lane). Kakhetsky Tsar Teymraz personally came to Moscow and asked for support against Iranian Shah (1658). The numerous Armenian colony was located in Astrakhan, which was the center of Russian trade with the eastern countries. In 1667, a contract of the royal government was signed with the Armenian trading company to trade Iranian silk. The head of the Armenian Church, Catholicos, applied to the king Alexey with a request to protect Armenians from violence of the Iranian authorities. The peoples of Georgia and Armenia were more closely associated with Russia in their struggle against Iranian and Turkish enslares.

The lively trade relations existed in Russia and with the peoples of Azerbaijan and Dagestan. In Shemache, there was a Russian merchant colony. Information about the eastern regions of the Caucasus, especially the cities of Azerbaijan, are contained in the "walking" of Russian people of the XVII century, of which the notes of the merchant F. A. Kotova are particularly interesting.

Connected links and from distant India. In Astrakhan there were settlements of the Indian merchants who traded with Russia. Tsarist Government during the XVII century. Several times sent their embassies to India.

5. Russian culture of the XVII century.

Education

In the XVII century In different regions of Russian culture there were large shifts.

"New period" in the history of Russia powerfully broke with the traditions of the past in science, art and literature. It affected the sharp increase in printed products, in the emergence of the first higher educational institution, in the emergence of the theater and newspapers (handwritten "Kurats"). Civil motifs conquer an increasing place in literature and painting, and even in such traditional arts, as an iconist and church paintings, there is a desire for realistic images, which far from the stylized manner of the Russian artists of the preceding centuries.

Huge and fruitful consequences for the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples had the reunification of Ukraine with Russia. The origin of the theater, the spread of parties singing (church choral singing), the development of sillybic poems, new elements in architecture were common cultural phenomena for Russia, Ukraine and Belarus of the XVII century.

Literacy was made by the heritage of significantly wider circles of the population than before. A large number of trading people and artisans in cities, as they show numerous signatures of landing people on jobs and other acts, skillfully read and write. Literacy was also applied among the peasant population, mainly among the black-made peasants, which can be judged by recordings on the manuscripts of the XVII century., Made by their owners - peasants. In the noble and merchant circles, literacy was already ordinary.

In the XVII century, enhanced attempts to create permanent educational institutions in Russia. However, only at the end of the century, these attempts lead to the creation of the first higher education institution. At first, the government opened in Moscow School (1687), in which the Greeks scientists brothers taught not only church, but also some secular sciences (arithmetic, rhetoric, etc.). On the basis of this school, the Slavological Greco-Latin Academy arose, which was playing a prominent role in Russian education. She was placed in the building of the Saconoscope Monastery in Moscow (some of these buildings were preserved to our time). The Academy mainly prepared for educated persons to replace spiritual positions, but gave a lot of people engaged in various civilian professions. In it, as you know, a great Russian scientist M. V. Lomonosov studied.

Further development received typography. Its main center was a printed courtyard in Moscow, the stone building of which exists and is currently. The printed yard mostly published church books. For the first half of the XVII century. About 200 separate publications were issued. The first book of the civil content printed in Moscow was the textbook of Patriarchard Dejak Vasily Burtseva - "The Language of Slaven's Language, siren the beginning of the teachings of children", first published in 1634 in the second half of the XVII century. The number of secular books manufactured by the printed courtyard increases dramatically. They belonged to "the doctrine and trick of the integrity of infantry people", "Cathedral Code", the Customs Charter, etc.

In Ukraine, Kiev and Chernigov were the most important centers of typography. In the printing house of Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, the first textbook on Russian history was printed - "Synopsis or a short assembly from different chroniclers about the start of the Slavic-Russian people."

Literature. Theatre

New phenomena in the Russian economy of the XVII century. Found reflection in the literature. In the landing environment, a household tale is born.

"Tale of Mount and Zlophatia" describes the gloomy story of a young man who failed on life path. "I know I know and I know that I don't put a scarlet without a master," the hero exclaims, leading an example from the life of artisans and merchants familiar with the use of Scarlant (velvet). A number of satirical works are devoted to rising the negative sides of the Russian life of the XVII century. In the story of Yersh, the wrong ordinaries are ridiculed. Yersh know and eat only "brahniks and kabatsky goals", who are not for what to buy good fish. The main wines of Yersch in the fact that he "Skop and plot" mastered the Rostov Lake, "the article" Cathedral Plug "on the speeches against the government parodes the story. There is also a caustic satire for church orders. "Kalyazinskaya petty" rizuats the hypocrisy of the monks.

Archimandrite drives us to the church, the monks complain, and at that time "the circle of buckets (with beer) without a port in some scrolls in the cells sit ... Do not hide us ... and the worst with a bucket bucket." In the "festival of Kabatsky Yaryzhek" we find a parody of church service: "Speedback, Lord, this evening without beating to drunk, drink us."

In the literature of the second half of the XVII century. Folk elements are increasingly more affected: in the agendas about Azov, in the Talk of the Beginning of Moscow, etc. People's singing sound in the poetic story about Azov, in the cry of the Cossacks: "Forgive us, the woods are dark and dublava Green. Forgive us, the fields are clean and quiet creek. Forgive us, the sea is blue and the fast river. " In the XVII century, a new type of literary work is approved - notes that will receive special development in the next century. A simple and clear language is written a remarkable product of the founder of the split - "Life" of the Avvakum Protopopa, telling about his long-suffering life.

Illustrations of Comedy "Proverbs about the Prodigal Son" 1685

Teacher Princess Sophia Alekseevna Simeon Polotsk launched wide literary activities as the author of numerous verses (poems), dramatic works, as well as textbooks, sermons and theological treatises. For the printing of new books, a special court printing house was created at the "sovereign on top".

A large cultural event was the emergence of theatrical productions in Russia. The Russian Theater appeared at the courtyard of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. For him, Simeon Polotsky wrote "the comedy of parables about the prodigal son." It depicted the history of the prodigal son, repent of the slituity life and back accepted by the Father. For the presentation in the Moscow Region Tsarskoye village, Preobrazhensky built a "comedy chramine". Here was played by the play "Artaxerks and Action" on the biblical plot. The play was extremely like Alexey Mikhailovich, and the royal confessor saved him from doubt about the sinfulness of the theater, pointing out the examples of the Byzantine pious kings who loved theatrical spectacles. The director of the court theater was Gregory, Pastor from German Sloboda. Soon his place was taken by S. Chizhinsky, the pupil of the Kiev Great Academy (1675). In the same year, a ballet and two new comedies were delivered in the court of the court: Adam and Eve, about Joseph. The troupe of the court theater has more than 70 people exclusively male composition, since women's roles were also performed by men; Among them were children - "inexperienced and disretened deprovers."

Architecture and painting

In the XVII century, stone construction was greatly developed. Stone churches appeared not only in cities, but became the usual phenomenon and in rural areas. In large centers, a considerable number of civilian civilian buildings was built. These were usually two-story buildings with windows decorated with platbands, and a richly trimmed porch. Samples of such houses are the "Table of Chambers" in Pskov, the house of Korobov in Kaluga, etc.

In the architecture of stone churches, five-chapted cathedrals and small temples with one or five chapters prevailed. The artists loved to decorate the outer walls of the churches with a stone pattern of cososhnikov, eaves, columns, window peelings sometimes multicolored tiles. Chapters put on high necks took an elongated bulbous form. Stone tantrop churches were built in the first half of the XVII century. Later, the tents of the temples remained the property of the Russian north with its wooden architecture.

At the end of the XVII century. A new style appears, which sometimes received the wrong name of the Russian Baroque. The temples had a cross-shaped form, and their chapters began to be located cross-shaped instead of the traditional arrangement in the corners. The style of such churches, unusually effective in their rich exterior scenery, was called "Naryshkinsky", because the best churches of such architecture were built in the manors of the boyar of Naryshkin. An excellent sample is the church in filiela, near Moscow. Buildings of this kind were erected not only in Russia, but also in Ukraine. Unusually slim and at the same time richly decorated with speakers, platbands, parapets of the building of this style admire with their beauty. This style in its distribution could be called Ukrainian-Russian.

The best master painter of that era Simon Ushakov sought to write not distracted, but realistic images. The icons and painting of such a "Fryazhny letter" show the desire of Russian artists to get closer to life, leaving the abstract schemes. New trends in art caused a deep outrage of the zeal workers. Thus, Avvakum's protopop spoke to new icons, saying that "saved merciful" was depicted like a drunken ingen with a blush on his cheeks.

High levels reached applied art: art embroidery, decorative wood carving, etc. The wonderful samples of jewelry art were created in the Armory, where the best masters worked, who performed orders of the royal yard.

In all areas of the cultural life of Russia, new trends were felt caused by deep economic and public shifts. These shifts, as well as a fierce class struggle and powerful peasant uprisings, shaking feudal-serfs, were reflected in folk poetry. Around the majestic figure of Stepan Razin there was a cycle of epic songs. "Try, guys, to a steep barbell, we will spread the wall, and we will deal on a stone on a stone," the folk song chas the feats of razin and his associates, calls to the fight against landowners, serfdom, social oppression.

In art, the process of regulation, complete submission and control of royal power. Established in 1648, the Academy of Painting and Sculpture is now in the official jurisdiction of the first minister of the king. In 1671, the Academy of Architecture is based. It establishes control over all kinds of artistic life. Classicism is officially becoming the leading style of all art.

In the classicism of the second half of the XVII century. There is no sincerity and depth of Lorren's canvases, a high moral ideal of Pussen. This is the official direction adapted to the requirements of the courtyard and primarily the king itself, the art is regulated, the unified, painted in the form of the rules, which and how to portray what is dedicated to the special treatise of Lebedin.

Architecture.

Large structures that glorify the king are created in the country.

Louis Levo.Palace in Le Vikont. Versailles.

Jules Adruen Mansar.He led the expansion of the palace in Versaille. Vendian square. Cathedral of disabled

.

Claude Perret. Louvre.

Francois Blonedel. Triumphal Arch

Ticket 17.

Art of Byzantium (5-7 V) Byzantine art is a historical and regional art type, which is part of the historical type of medieval art.

658 BC Based by the city of Greek by the colonists of Byzantium on the island between the Golden Horn Bay and the Marmara Sea. The leader of the visant is the city of Byzantium. Thanks to the good geographical position, Byzantium began to take one of the most prominent and main places among the Greek policies.

Periodization

early Christian period (the so-called foresignant culture, I-III century); Church of San Appolinar

earlyzantine period, "Golden Age" of Emperor Justinian I (527-565), architecture of the Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople (Architects of Anthimiya from Tral and Isidore from Millet, the top of the development of arous-vaulted structures 527g) and Ravennic Mosaics (VI-VII century), scapultures ( good donkey) + illustrating books (including church); Church of San Vitali 526-547, an octagon in terms of, Encoustic iconographic (Christ punch).

Earlyzantine period Construction of a variety of monastery ensembles and temples. These types of temples as longitudinally basilical and cross-domed are becoming the most characteristic.

Basilica - type of the structure of the rectangular shape, which consists of a different number (1, 3 or 5) of various in the height of the oil.

In the multi-end basilic of the oil, the longitudinal rows of columns or pillars, with independent coatings, are separated. Central Nets - usually wider and greater in height, illuminated with the help of the windows of the second tier

iconoboric period (VIII-beginning of the 9th century). Emperor Lion III ISAVR (717-741), founder of the Isair dynasty, issued an edict of banning icons. This period was called "Dark Time" - largely by analogy with a similar stage of development of Western Europe; (Church of Holy Irina 4B, Istanbul) destroyed the first mosaics

the period of the Macedonian Renaissance (867-1056) It is considered to be a classic period of Byzantine art. The XI century became the highest point of heyday. The world's information was drawn from the Bible and from the works of ancient authors. The harmony of art was achieved at the expense of strict regulation; Restoring icons.

preservatism period Under the emperors of the comnin dynasty (1081-1185) of Hellenistic traditions (1261-1453). Canonism icon painting.

The term Byzantine art means not only the art of the eastern part of the Roman Empire, but also a specific style since this style has grown out of certain trends that can be attributed to the Board of Constantine and even earlier

Cross-dome temple - Architectural type of the Christian temple, formed in Byzantium and in the countries of the Christian East in the V-VIII centuries. He became dominant in the architecture of Byzantium from the IX century and was adopted by Christian countries of Orthodox confession as the main form of the temple. The classic version is a rectangular volume, the center of which is divided with 4 pillars to 9 cells. The ceiling cylindrical vaults serve the ceiling, and the drum with a dome rises above the central cell, on the remedy arches.

Mosaic of Justinian with a retinue.

18) Question 1

Italian art has evolved within local schools. The architecture has developed Tuscan, Lombard, Venetian schools, in the stylist of which new trends were often combined with local traditions. In the visual art, first of all in painting, several schools were also formed - Florentine, Umbry, Northwalian, Venetian - with their unique stylistic features. Bruntelleski, Donatello, Mazacho - three Florentine geniuses - opened a new era in architecture and visual art. Having created the original design of the Dome of the Florentine Cathedral of Santa Maria Del Fiore shelter for the elevation (Death of Deli Innochi), Church of San Lorenzo
Philippe Bruneland (1377-1446) gave a powerful impetus to the innovative development of Italian architecture. The octaigrated dome with a diameter of 42 m majestically ascended over the Gothic Cathedral, becoming the symbol of the power of the city and the power of the human mind. In the buildings of Bruneland in Florence - Capella Pazzi,

in contrast to the aspiration of the building, characteristic of Gothic, Brunalells first created the lower floor of the facade in the form of a lightweight portico, unfolding horizontally to the entire width and adjacent to the square. The projects of Leon Battista Alberti were noted innovation: in Palazzo Rchelllai

in Florence, he first applied the membership of the three tiers of the facade of pilasters of different orders,
The Venetian Architecture of Renaissance was different. She folded later than in Tuscany, in recent decades of the XV century. Local gothic traditions were combined with Renaissance features. Venetians appreciated the elegacity, the color of buildings. Standing on the piles Palace Patristian nobility decorated with loggias, thin threads on stone, multicolor inlays, brick was lined with bridal marble. The features of the new architecture were manifested not only in secular buildings, but also in church architecture, brighter in the Church of San Zakkaria.
An outstanding Florentine sculptor Donatello became a genuine reformer of the art of sculptor (approx. 1386-1466). He first created a separate statue that did not associate with the architecture, was the author of the first equestrian monument - the monument to Condoinager Gattamelate in Padua,
The beauty of the naked human body in the stone and bronze (relief of the Chair of the Florentine Cathedral, the statue of David). Spiritualized images of his relief "Annunciation"

The formation and development of Renaissance painting was a complex process. Back in the first third of the XIV century. Great artist Jotto in his frescoes in Del Arena Chapel in Padua
It puts the shapes that have a volume, in three-dimensional, albeit a shallow space.
The birth of a new, actually Renaissance painting is connected, however, with the name of another outstanding Florentine - Mazacho (1401-1428 / 29). His painting Capella Brankachchi in the Church of Santa Maria Del Carmines in Florence
became a school for many generations of artists. In the frescoes of Mazacho, depicting exile from Paradam Adam and Eve and scene from the life of the Apostle Peter ,.The Filled Beato Angelico. In his work, which experienced the influence of Mazacho, along with Renaissance features, the traditions of medieval art were still preserved. Creating Medici in Palazzo its fresco "Procession of Magi"

Thin, spiritual images of Madonn created Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510). In his work, they come closer to their tender and fragile beauty with the images of the ancient goddess of love Venus. In the picture "Spring"
The artist depicts Venus against the background of a fabulous garden along with the goddess of fertility by Flora, covered with flowers, three dancing graces and other characters of ancient mythology. In the "birth of Venus"
In recent decades, the XV century Along with the Florentine School of Painting, they have their own special handwriting of the school and directions in the middle (Umbria) and North (Lombardy, Venice) of Italy. The beginning of the Umbral Picturesque School laid the work of one of the largest masters of Middle Italy Piero della Francesca (approx. 1420-1492). He was the author of the treatise about the future, an outstanding monumentalist who created the frescoes "Arrival of Queen Savskaya to the king Solomon"

,

and others in the Church of San Francesco to Arezzo, and the greatest colorist who miserable to transmit the beauty of color harmonies in a light-hearted environment. His images are heroisulated, they are inherent in magty, epic calm. Humanistic representations of the artist about a person found an expression in the portraits of the Duke of Urbinsky Federigo and his wife Battists Sforza, written about 1465. The Pietro Perugino, famous for the soft poetry of his works, including the lyrical type of Madonn, Pinturikkyo, who created in painting the libraries of the Cathedral of the Cathedral of the Cancer, and Multifigure Compositions, Luke Xinorelli, for the harsh creativity of which were characterized by sharp graphic The beginning, the skill of transferring a naked human body.

1. The main trends in the 20th century art.

Modernism Artistic tendencies, in the second half of the 19th century, in the form of new forms of creativity, where a free look of the master, free to change the visible world at its discretion, following a personal impression, an inner idea or a mystical dream.

In the Russian aesthetics "Modern" means the artistic style of the late XIX-early XX century historically preceding modernism, so it is necessary to distinguish between these two concepts in order to avoid confusion.

Abstractionism- The artistic direction, formed in the art of the first half of the 20th century, fully refused to reproduce the forms of the real visible world. The founders of abstractionism is considered to be V. Kandinsky, P. Mondriana and K. Malevich. In abstractionism, two clear directions can be distinguished: geometric abstraction, based mainly on well-defined configurations (Malevich, Mondrian), and lyrical abstraction in which the composition is organized from free forms (Kandinsky). Abstract expressionism - School of drawing quickly and on large rods of strollers dripping with paints on canvas.

Pete Mondrian

"Mill B. sunlight"1908 Gray Tree 191 Evolution 1911

Russian history. Factor analysis. Volume 2. From the end of the University to the February Revolution of Nefedov Sergey Aleksandrovich

1.10. Traditions and westernization in the second half of the XVII century

Returning to the description of the role of technological (diffusion) factor, it is necessary, first of all, to give brief description Eastern and Western ratios in Russian society XVII century, in his social and material culture. The Europeans who visited Russia during this period, had the difference between Russian customs and orders from their usual. "And they have little European features today, and Asian prevail," said Tuscan Ambassador Yakov Ratettfels in 1680. - cutting clothes, pomp with public celebrations, the usual way of doing economy, government management techniques, the whole, finally, the system of life responds with more Asian unbridles, rather than European education ... "Raythettfels describes the eastern customs of the Russians: they tend to sleep after lunch, take Food with a dish with fingers, when meeting, kiss each other or get deep bows, constantly exercise in horseback riding and archery, free timelike Persians, spend the game of checkers. "Neglecting stone houses, they are quite fair to believe that much healthier, due to strong and constant cold weather, stamped, like Tatars and Chinese, in wooden." The Dutch traveler Jan Stretis wrote that in Moscow a lot of public baths like Turkish and Persian, which, as a result of the law on clothes, everyone should dress on the sample appointed to him that "they write on their knees, at least before them stood the table" that women " They are kept locked up, almost like Turchans. " Court doctor of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Samuel Collins adds that "the beauty of women will honor them the fat little" that women to enjoy the husbands, they shine their teeth and eye proteins.

To the eastern customs referred to the king. "Welcoming the king, they usually spread the NIC to the whole body on the ground," says Y. Ratettfels: it was the Chinese custom of "jobs", "Cow Tau". The same knees demanded from Western ambassadors, giving them in return, on the eastern custom, fur coats. Muscovites revered the king on a par with God: "Moshos constantly openly declare everywhere that God and king are possible and everything is known that only God and the king they are ready to give everything that only have the best, and even the best life."

At the beginning of the XVII century, the customs of the royal court did not differ from the people, and Muscovites were sensitive to cases of their violations: when it became known that Lhadmitry was not sleeping after dinner, the rumor was immediately spread that the king "changed" immediately spread. For Mikhail Fedorovich, Italian masters built a stone palace, but he preferred to live in Wooden Christie, finding them more healthy. Alexey Mikhailovich was so diveged that she stood in the service of 5-6 hours and beat off the thousands of terrestrial bows. In 1648, the king was forbidden to work on Sundays and holidays to work on Sundays and holidays, ordered everyone to go to church and observe the post, and also forbade playing cards and chess, ordered to destroy musical instruments And etc. It was then forbidden smoking, cultivation and selling tobacco. In 1675, Alexey Mikhailovich commanded to declare the courtest, so that they were "ingenic German and other elevations, they did not cut the hair on their heads, as well as dresses, kaftans and the caps did not wear themselves and we did not believe people." The Summer Palace, built by the king in Kolomensky, had the form of the Russian Terem: It was decorated with carvings and flora and was painted in Russian icon painter Fedor Ushakov and Armenian Ivan Saltanov. The royal throne Alexei Mikhailovich was made by Persian masters, and the Crown was brought from Constantinople. However, there were many mirrors in the palace and the watches were the first signs of the cultural influence of Europe.

European cultural influence launched a way through economic innovations. Under Alexei Mikhailovich, B. I. Morozov opposed the initiator of these innovations; In his extensive farm, he experimented with various agricultural crops and mastered new fisheries at that time: heded the fish in the artificial ponds, he was engaged in gardening, created the horse plants. The innovative spirit of this entrepreneur reflects the case that happened in 1651: having learned that Colonel Kraford has been brought from Europe seeds of a new carnival culture, Morozov offered him the best lands and sent several peasants to learn from Kraford. With the help of German monks, winemaking was headed in Astrakhan, and in 1658 the yard was delivered from there more than a thousand buckets of red wine. In 1659, Morozov met the famous Slavic enlightener Yuri Krzhanic, which leads in his treatise "Politics" a lot of socio-economic recommendations in the spirit of the era of enlightenment. "Why am I not young, something I could still learn!" - exclaimed frost after a conversation with cricker.

A. I. Zaozersky believes that Morozov handed over the spirit of innovative entrepreneurship to his pupil, King Alexey: Alexey has repeatedly been in the Morozovsky estate Pokrovskoe and was aware of the economic experiments conducted. In those times botanical gardens Were in fashion in Europe. Marseilis brought the king of the Duke Golshtinsky gift - Garden roses from Gottford Garden; Vinius took a peach, apricot seedlings, almonds, Spanish cherries. In 1662, the ambassadors sent to England were ordered from the "Seeds of all sorts". In 1664-1665, the king founded his own experimental economy, the estate of Izmailovo; The deaths were sent to bring seeds or seedlings of grapes, a mounted tree, cotton, dyeing grass, walnut and many other cultures from various places. Attempts to breed tute trees and cotton, naturally ended in failure, but the experiments continued: the manufactory of linen fabrics was mastered, a Safian plant was built, two glazing and three ironing plants.

Experiments and innovations soon went beyond the framework of the royal economy. Back in 1657, the king ordered his Dutch emissar GEBDON to hire the "alchemists of the most scientists, the events of silver, copper and iron". Since 1666, the hired "Runes" goes with expeditions for the exploration of ores to various areas of the country. Trade projects were put forward, in 1663 the Moscow ambassador tried to negotiate with the Kourneda Duke on sending ships to India. Negotiations ended in failure, then the Moscow government began to look for trade routes in the south. The trading path through the Caspian Sea has long been attracted to itself the attention of Western merchants, who asked the permit from Moscow to organize the transit of Persian silk to Europe. In 1663, a large trading expedition was sent to Persia to Persia, which brought goods by 80 thousand rubles.

In 1665-1667, A. L. Ordin-Nachchokin, "Royal and State Ambassadors of the Boyar" became the head of the Moscow government. Ordin-Nashchkin organized a regular translation of foreign newspapers for the Embassy Order (from time to time they were translated before) and sending a large number of books. At this time, translated Polish books are printed in a variety; If only 13 books were translated from European languages \u200b\u200bin the first half of the XVII century, then in the second half - 114 books. Following the translational fiction, the first Russian stories, for example, "History about the Russian Nobleman Frole Skobeev" appear.

One of the nearest employees of Ortada Nachchokin was the Dutch merchant Johann Wang Sveden. Wang Sveden built the first paper mill and the first cloth factory in Russia. In 1665, Ordin-Nachchokin instructed Wang Swolen Organization of a regular postal service, and in 1667 - the construction of the first ship for the Caspian Fleet. Before the Caspians were flooded with doping "Tsaric Beads", the trim of which knitted, without nails, so that these vessels were suitable only one - two flights. Now it was assumed to start a real merchant fleet, and the first ship of this fleet, "Eagle", was built in the spring of 1669; He descended on the Volga to Astrakhan, but was captured here by the Cossacks of Razin. Nevertheless, Ordin-Nachchokin signed an agreement with the Armenian company about the transit of Persian silk through Russia, and over time this trade has become very significant. On the Board of Sophia, Prince V. V. Golitsyn built two frigates who delivered silk from Shemakh to Astrakhan.

The second person in the government of the 1660s was the Ocolnichy Bogdan Matveevich Khitrovo, a friend of the king and the closest attorney of his personal affairs. Like Ordin-Nachchokin, Khitrovo was "Western", and said that he receives big money from the Dutch. Under the influence of Heathrovo, the king appointed the teacher of his children of the West Simeon Educator of Simeon Polotsky, who taught them Latin and Polish, and even writing poems. Polotsky was one of the first Russian church philosophers and poets (he wrote in Church Slavonic), at the same time he led the school in the Spassky Monastery, who was acquainted with the Polish culture of young diplomats and officials from a secret order. Polotsk also assisted also the spread of Western painting, at that time the first royal front portraits and landscapes were appeared, which were decorated not only at home, but also the alleys of parks.

After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, the student of Simeon Polotsk Tsar Fedor Alekseevich rose to the throne (1676-1682). Young Tsar Fedor was married to the Polish nobility Agafier Gruckhetsky, he knew Latin and Polish languages \u200b\u200band was a fan of Polish culture. Fedor ordered the court to wear Polish caftans; It was a symbolic act of cultural reorientation from East to West, and the royal chronicler Adamov clearly handed out the ideological meaning of the reform: "Dress to the people of the Russian command to wear from the Tatars canceled." The new king tried to force Muscovites to build stone houses, ordered to restore the Slavic-Latin school in the Spassky Monastery and appointed her by the head of another student Polotsk, Sylvester Medvedev.

In 1682, the death of King Fyodor, a severe illness of his brother Ivan and the childhood of another heir, Peter, caused an autocracy crisis. Boyar groupings were again published again, which began the struggle for power under the guise of the support of the king Peter or King Ivan. In this struggle, Moscow Sagittarius intervened, dissatisfied with the abuse of their primary people and the fallen dissolutes of Streetsky troops (the Streetsky regiments outside of Moscow were already transformed into soldiers). Prince Khovansky, exciting Sagittarov, shouted that "and you, and we will be given to an alien enemy, Moscow will destroy, and believing the Orthodox faith." It was traditionalist reaction,directed against military reform conducted by an inrogen sample.

The only representative royal family, able to support the authority of power in the situation of the beginning anarchy, turned out to be Tsarevna Sophia. She hooked along with the brothers in the Trinity-Sergiye Lavra, called on the help of the local militia and led the firing to humility. Thus, at the critical moment, the monarchy found a support in the nobility; The boyars aristocracy became another support of Sofia. By virtue of his position, Sophia could not show self-deficiency and therefore I was looking for support for the nobility, in a large number of handing out the twisted ranks. Contemporaries show that Sophia Rules together with boyars.

The boyars, like Sagittarius, were not interested in the preservation of the regiments of the "Inrogen building". The government was forced to make concessions to traditionalists: about four hundred foreign officers (about a third) were dismissed, and only the divided "Germans" remained in the service, which were received by "choice." On the other hand, the nobility took advantage of the weakness of the central government and already during the collection in the Trinity-Sergiye Lavra presented it with its length requirements, primarily concerned with the strengthening of the cheek's fighters. Another concession was a decree of 1684, which established that the estate (even large) after the death of their owner remains in the family and are divided between the heirs over their local salary - despite the fact that the heirs did not listen to this increase. Decree of 1688 allowed the sale of victim peasants without land; Decrees 1688 and 1690 sanctioned the right of the owners to exchange both faiths and estates. By the end of the XVII century, the distinction between the estate and very worn almost erased; The estates were transferred by inheritance by the men's line, they were given to widows and unmarried girls "for the proceeding" and sometimes even sold.

The traditionalist policy of Sophia was forced. Like her brother, Tsar Fedor, Sophia studied at Simeon Polotsk; According to some information, Tsarevna owned Polish. After the death of Polotsk, the place of the confessor and mentor Sofia took another supporter of rapprochement with the West, Sylvester Medvedev. The first assistant Sophia in state affairs (and her beloved) was the head of the Embassy Order of the famous "Western" Prince V. V. Golitsyn. According to De La Neville, Golitsyn knew Polish, he allowed foreigners free entry to Russia, allowed the nobles to send children to training to Poland, allowed Jesuit to the country and often spoke with them. It was rumored that Golitsyn intended to make Sylvester Medvedev Patriarch in order to unite the Greek and Latin church. These plans (or rumors about them) caused a fierce protest of the Patriarch of Joachim, who became the main enemy of Golitsyn and Sophia.

In 1687-1689, during the war with Turkey, Golitsyn was forced to refer to the hiring of foreign officers to recruit the 75,000-thousand "Inrogen-building" army. Know (in the Polish sample) was painted on regular Rotam headed by Rothmistraces and Horuna. Protesting against these innovations, Princes B. F. Dolgorukov and Yu. A. Shcherbatov appeared on a review, dressed together with their people in a black mourning dress. Later to the protest, the Patriarch Joakim, who publicly preferably predicted the madness of the army infected with the presence of Inoverts officers. The campaign really ended in failure - and the Patriarch immediately reminded his prophecy.

The failure of the Crimean campaigns shakes the position of Sofia and Golitsyn. When in 1689, the conflict broke out between Sofia and the king Peter, the Patriarch Joachim and many princes (including Dolgorukov and Shcherbatov) were immediately moved to the side of the young king. Thus - oddly enough - the victory of Peter was due to the support of the traditionalist party. According to M. M. Bogoslovsky, the king "in this struggle was still much more symbol than actively by the person with his own initiative." Absorbated by his fun, the king was not engaged in state affairs, and the power was in the hands of the Patriarch of Joachim and the traditionalist-minded boyars, relatives of Mother Peter Natalia Naryshina. De la Neville wrote that "those who rejoiced to the fall of Golitsyn soon repent of his death, as the Naryshkins who manage them at the present time, being uneducated and rude, began ... destroy everything that this great person Entered the new ... "Sylvester Medvedev was executed, Jesuita had to leave Russia, the shelves of" foreign building "were dissolved at home, and most foreign officers were dismissed.

Ultimately, the Boyar government was hardly reflected in the discipline of the nobility and the state of the regiments of the "inrogen building". In 1695, at the first trip on the Azov, only 14 thousand soldiers were in combat readiness; The rest of the 120,000th army consisted of Russian building warriors, that is, from Sagittarov and the local militia. Subsequently, in 1717, Prince Ya. F. Dolgoruki spoke Peter that his father was the work of regular troops a path to him, "Yes, it was unreasonable all of his institutions", so Peter had to read everything again and to bring to the best condition.

Thus, the relaxation of autocracy was due mainly by random factors, but it opened the road of the traditionalist reaction and led to the fact that the results of the second military revolution were partly lost.

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1. Socio-economic development of the country

By the middle of the XVII century, destroy and ruin the times of the Troubles were overcome. The economy was restored slowly in the conservation of traditional forms of housekeeping (weak productivity of peasant economy with its primitive technique and technology; sharply continental climate; low soil fertility in non-black earth).

In the second half of the XVII century, agriculture remained the leading industry of Russia. Progress in this area of \u200b\u200bmaterial production at the time was associated with the wide distribution of three-pond and the use of natural fertilizers. Bread gradually became the main commodity product of agriculture. By the middle of the century, the Russian people stubbornly overcame ruin caused by foreign invasions. The peasants again settled the villages abandoned before, plowed empty, acquired livestock and agricultural equipment. As a result of Russian peasant colonization, new regions were mastered: in the south of the country, in the Volga region, Bashkiria, Siberia. In all these places there were new foci of agricultural culture. But the overall level of agricultural development was low. In agriculture continued to apply such primitive guns as Sokh and Harrow. In the forest areas of the North, there was still a hurry, and in the steppe strip of the South and the Middle Volga region - a flute.

The basis for the development of animal husbandry was the peasant economy. Cattle breeding was especially developed in Pomorie, on Yaroslavl, in the southern counties. The noble land tenure grew rapidly as a result of numerous suggestions by the Government and Votchin nobles. By the end of the XVII century, the faithful noble land tenure began to exceed the dominant of the previously placed land tenure. The center of the estate or fault was the village or Selo. Usually in the village there were about 15-30 peasant yards. But there were villages in two or three yards. The village was different from the village not only in large sizes, but also the presence of the church with the bell tower. It was a center for all villages included in his church parish. In agricultural production, natural economy prevailed. Small production in agriculture was connected with homemade peasant industry and small city craft. Also, agricultural products also increased markedly, which was associated with the development of fertile land and east lands, the emergence of a number of fishing areas that did not produce their bread and the growth of cities. A new and very important phenomenon in agriculture was his connection with industrial entrepreneurship. Many peasants in the field free from field work, mainly in the fall and winter, engaged in handicrafts: they made canvas, shoes, clothes, dishes, agricultural tools, etc. Some of these products was used in the peasant economy itself or surrendered to the landowner, the other was sold in the near market. Feedals have increasingly installed contact with the market, where they sold the products and handicraft products received on the louder. Without satisfying the lifting, they expanded their own spares and established their own manufacture of products. Keeping mostly natural, agriculture of the feudalists has already been largely connected with the market. The production of products for the supply of cities and a number of industrial areas that did not produce bread grew. The southern states of the state turned into bread-producing areas, from where the bread came to the area of \u200b\u200bthe Don Cossacks and to the central regions (especially in Moscow). The excess of bread was given and the legends of the Volga region. The main path of the development of agriculture of this time is extensive: the landowners include an increasing number of new territories.

Among all classes and estates, the dominant place certainly belonged to the feudal. In their interests, state power carried out measures to strengthen the property Boyar and the nobility to Earth and the peasants, on the cohesion of the stands of the feudal class. Servivat people took shape in a complex and clear hierarchy of the ranks, owned by the state for military, civil, court departments in exchange for the right to own land and peasants. They were divided into duma ranks (boyars, okolnichny, twisted noblemen and twisted devils), Moscow (crawls, old, nobles Moscow and tenants) and city (nobles elected, nobles and children boyars, nobles and children boyar city). According to merit, the service and knowledge of the origin of the feudallee passed from one rank to another. The nobility turned into a closed class - estate.

The authorities strictly and consistently sought to keep their estates and behavish in the hands of the nobles. The requirements of the nobles and the measures of the authorities led to the fact that by the end of the 20th century, the difference between the estate and a career to a minimum was reduced. Throughout the century, the government, on the one hand, handed the feudals huge land arrays; On the other hand, part of possessions, more or less significant, translated from the estate in behavior. Large land owners with peasants belonged to spiritual feudals. In the XVII century, the authorities continued the course of their predecessors to the restriction of church land tenure. "Clause" of 1649, for example, forbidden the clergy to acquire new lands. Restricted the privileges of the Church in the affairs of the court and management. Unlike feudal, especially nobility, the position of the peasants and the hills in the XVII century has deteriorated significantly. Of the private owner, the peasants of the palace lived, worse than all - the peasants of secular feudalists, especially small. The peasants worked in favor of the feudalists on the barbecue and made natural and money regulations. Carpenters and masonry, bricks and other Masters noblemen and Boyar took from their villages and villages. The peasants worked at the first factories and factories belonging to feudal and treasury, made cloves and canvases at home, etc. Fortress, in addition to the work and payments in favor of the feudalists, were obligations in favor of the treasury. In general, their undercover, durability were harder than the palace and protein vehicles. The position of the peasants dependent on the feudalists was aggravated by the fact that the court and the disgrace of the boyars and their orders were accompanied by non-rich violence, bullying, humiliation of human dignity. After 1649, the broad sizes took the suction of runaway peasants. Thousands of them were enough and returned to the owners. To live, the peasants went to the departure, in the "Bathers", on earnings. The impoverished peasants went to the category of beas. The feudalists, especially large, there were many horses, sometimes several hundred people. These are clarifiers and servants for parcels, barns and tailors, guard and shoemakers, Sokolniki, and others. By the end of the century, a fusion of a cauldron with a peasantry occurred. Better lived with state, or protein vehicles, peasants. They depended on the feudal state: taxes contributed to his favor, they carried different means. Despite the modest share of merchants and artisans in the total number of residents of Russia, they played a very significant role in her economic life. The leading center of handicraft, industrial production, trading operations was Moscow. Here in the 40s worked masters of metalworking, furry, making various foods, leather and leather products, clothes and hats, many other things - everything that needs a large crowded city. A significant part of the artisans worked on the state, KazNU. A part of the artisans served the needs of the Palace (Palace) and those who lived in Moscow and other cities of the feudalists (wrapped artisans). There was also a simple capitalist cooperation, hired labor was used. In mercenaries to rich blacksmiths, kitelniks, bread bubbles and other seasons walked, peasants. The same happened on transport, river and gown. The development of handicraft production, its professional, territorial specialization makes a revival in the economic life of cities, trade relations between them and their districts. It is by the XVII century. It is the beginning of the concentration of local markets, folding on their basis of the All-Russian market. Guests and other rich merchants appeared with their goods in all ends of the country and beyond its turns. Rich merchants, artisans, industrialists filled everyone in Posad communities. Shifted the main severity of fees and duties on small artisans and merchants.

In industry, in contrast to agriculture, things were much better. The widest distribution was received by the home industry; Throughout the country, the peasants produced canvas and semi-mounted cloth, ropes and ropes, felled and leather shoes, and a variety of clothing and dishes, and much more. Gradually, the peasant industry turns into small commodity production. Among the artisans, the most numerous group was the painful - artisans of urban Posads and inhibitors. They performed private orders or worked on the market. Palace craftsmen served the needs of the royal court; State and notebooks worked on the orders of the treasury; Protective - from peasants, beasles and holsters - made everything necessary for landowners and wilts. The metalworking existed in the country was founded on the extraction of swamp ores. The centers of metallurgy have developed in the south of Moscow: Serpukhovsky, Kashirsky, Tula, Dedilovsky, Aleksinsky. Another center is a county to the north-west of Moscow: Ustyuzhna Zanenopolskaya, Tikhvin, Zaleschier. Most of the metalworking was performed by Moscow - even at the beginning of the 40s, there were more than one and a half hundred forge. In the capital they worked the best masters of gold and silver in Russia. The centers of silver production were also Ustyug Great, Nizhny Novgorod, Veliky Novgorod, Tikhvin and others. Copper treatment and other non-ferrous metals were engaged in Moscow, Pomorie. Metalworking is largely turning into commodity production, and not only in urban pans, but also in the village. A blacksmithing detects trends in the consolidation of production, use of hired labor. This is especially characteristic of Tula, Ustyug, Tikhvin, Ustyuga Great.

Similar phenomena, although to a lesser extent, are marked in woodworking. Throughout the country, carpenters worked mainly to order - built houses, river and sea vessels. Special skills were distinguished carpenters from Pyrosa. The largest center of the leather industry was Yaroslavl, where the raw materials were received from many counties of the country to highlight leather products. There was a large number of small "plants" - craft workshops. The masters from Kaluga and Nizhny Novgorod were engaged in skin treatment. Yaroslavl masters-leathermen used hired labor; Some factories have surrendered into enterprises of a manufactory type with a significant division of labor. With all its development, handicraft production could not already satisfy the demand for industrial products. This leads to the emergence of manuffs in the 18th century - enterprises based on the division of labor between employees. If in Western Europe, manufactory was capitalist enterprises, were serviced by the work of hired workers, then in Russia, in the conditions of the domination of the feudal-serfral system, the arising manufactory produced was largely based on serfdom. Most of the manufactories belonged to the treasury, the royal court and a major boyars. Palace manufactories were created for the production of fabrics for the royal court. One of the first palace linen manufactories was a chamovny courtyard located in the near Moscow Palace Slobodah. Casual manufactories arising in the XV century, as a rule, were based on the production of various types of weapons. The causative manuffs were a cannonor, weapon chamber, money, jewelry courtyards and other enterprises. The population of Moscow government and palace Slobod worked on state and palace manuffs. Workers, although they received salary, were feudal-dependent people, they had no right to quit work. Patched manufactories were most pronounced serfdom. Reliable, hidden, leather, linen and other manufactories were created in the Boyar Morozov, Miloslavsky, Stroganov, and others. Almost exclusively forced labor of fortress peasants was used here. Hired work was used on mercenary manufactories. In Ustyuhn, Tula, Tikhvin, Ustyug, some of the rich merchants began to base metalworking enterprises. In the 90s of the XVII century, the rich Tula blacksmith-artisan Nikita Antuphyev opened a cast-power plant. Some manufactories and fishery were founded by rich peasants, such as Volzhsky salt fishery, leather, ceramic and textile manufactories. In addition to merctic manufactories, hired labor is also used in brick production, in construction, fishing and excreated industry. Among the workers there were many peasants-observers, which, although personally and were not free people, sold their labor to the owners of the means of production.

The growth of productive forces in agriculture and industry, the deepening of public division of labor and territorial production specialization led to a steady expansion of trade relations. At the end of the XVII century, trade relations already exist on national scales. In the north in need of imported bread, bread markets fold, the main of which was Vologda. The shopping center in the north-western part of the state was Novgorod - a large market for the sale of flax and hemp products. An important markets for livestock products were Kazan, Vologda, Yaroslavl, sales markets - some cities of the northern part of Russia: Solvychydsk, Irbit, and others. The largest manufacturers of metal wear Tula, Tikhvin and other cities. The main shopping center throughout Russia continued to be Moscow, in which trading routes were converged from all over the country and from abroad. In 120 specialized rows of Moscow bargaining, silk, fur, metal and wool products, wines, fat, bread and other, domestic and foreign goods were sold. Bought the All-Russian Measurement of the Fair - Makarevskaya, Arkhangelskaya, Irbitan. Volga tied up with economic uzami many cities in Russia. The dominant position in trade occupied Posad people. In trade, specialization has been developed weakly, capital appealed slowly, free funds and loans were absent. Rossi intensified the demand for industrial products, and the development of agriculture and craft gave the possibility of stable exports. Therefore, trade was carried out with the countries of the East, through Astrakhan. Silk imported, various fabrics, spices, luxury items, made out of fur, leather craft products. Russian merchants carried the loss due to Western competition, especially in the case of the government of the European merchants of the right of duty-free trade. Therefore, the government adopted a new-selling charter in 1667, according to which the retail trade of foreigners in Russian cities was prohibited, duty-free wholesale trade was allowed only in border cities, and in the inner Russia foreign goods have been sustained very high duties, often in the amount of 100% of the cost.

The development of the country's economy was accompanied by major social movements. The XVII century is not accidental called the "rebellious age." It was during this period that there were two peasant "Universion" (the rebellion of the Bolotnikov and the peasant war under the leadership of S.Razin), as well as the Solovetsky riot and two shooting uprisings in the last quarter of the XVII century. The history of urban uprisings opens the "Salt Bunk" in 1648 in Moscow. It took part in it various layers of the population of the capital: Posal people, Sagittarius, nobles, dissatisfied with the policy of B.I, Morozova (1590-1611), who headed the Russian government. By decree of February 7, 1646, a high tax on salt was introduced. And the salt was the product from which people could not be in the XVII century could not. In 1646-1648, the prices for salt rose 3-4 times. The people began to starve. Everyone was unhappy. Expensive salt sold less than the previous treasury suffered significant losses. In 1647, the salt tax was rejected, but it was too late. The reason for the speech served as the defeat of the delegation of Muscovites, who tried to sell the petition king to the arbitrariness of ordinary officials. The uprising began on June 1 and lasted for several days. The people threw the courtyards of Moscow boyars and nobles, devils and rich merchants, demanding to issue hateful officials of Plescheyev, who made the department of the capital and the head of the Government of Boyhar Morozov. Duma deque Nazari was killed, the crowd of the crowd was given to the crowd of the crowd and others. The king managed to save only Morozov, urgently sending him to the link Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery. The Moscow "Salt Bunk" responded to the upright of 1648-1650 and in other cities. The most stubborn and prolonged uprisings in 1650 were in Pskov and in Novgorod. They were caused by a sharp increase in bread prices. To stabilize the position of the authorities, the Zemsky Cathedral was convened, who accepted the new "Code".

On July 25, 1662, "Copper Bund", caused by the Russian-Polish war, caused by the Russian-Polish war, the financial crisis of monetary reform (the chasing of dispensed copper money) led to a sharp drop in the ruble exchange rate. As a result, the emergence of fake money on the market. At the beginning of 1663, copper money was abolished, frankly motivating this measure to prevent new bloodshed. As a result of cruel violence, several hundred people died, and 18 were engaged in publicly.

In 1667, the Dowreat of the Cossacks led to Stepan Razin.

The introduction of the new Code of Laws, "Cathedral Cutting" of 1649, the cruel cheer of runaway, the growth of taxes in the war gaped the already tense position in the state. Wars with Poland and Sweden ruined the main part of labor layers. At the same years, rags, epidemics, the position of Streltsov, Pushkjers, and others were worsened, worsened. Many fled to the outskirts, especially on Don. In the Cossack regions for a long time, it turned into a custom not to issue fugitives. The bulk of the Cossacks, especially the fugitives, lived poorly, poorly. Agriculture of the Cossacks were not engaged. The salaries that received from Moscow was not enough. By the mid-60s, the position on the Don worsened to the extreme. It accumulated a large number of runaway. He began hunger. Cossacks sent the Embassy to Moscow with a request to take them to the royal service, but they were denied them. By 1667, the uprising of the Cossacks turned into a well-organized movement under the direction of Razin. The numerous rebel army was defeated in 1670 under Symbirsk. In early 1671, the main foci of movement were suppressed by punitive detachments of the authorities.

The social crisis was accompanied by an ideological crisis. An example of the transformation of religious struggle to the social is the "Solovetsky uprising" (1668-1676). It began with the fact that the brothers of the Solovetsky monastery flatly refused to take the corrected liturgical books. The government decided to tame some monks by the blockade of the monastery and confiscation of its land possessions. High thick walls, rich food reserves stretched the siege of the monastery for several years. In the ranks of the rebels, the zealings were arranged, exiled at Solovki. Only as a result of betrayal, the monastery was captured, from 500 his protective alive remained 60.

Thus, over the XVII century, large changes occurred in history. They concerned all aspects of life. By this time the territory of the Russian state expanded significantly, the population is growing. Also further develops a feudal-serf system, with a significant strengthening of feudal land ownership. The dominant class in the XVII century were feudal landowners, secular and spiritual landlords and markers. Of particular importance is the development of trade. There were several large shopping centers in Rossi, among whom Moscow was standing out with its enormous trading. Meanwhile, during the same years in the country, the case broke out uprisings, in particular, a fairly powerful Moscow uprising of 1662. The largest speech was the uprising of Stepan Razin, who in 1667 led the peasants on the Volga. In the economic situation of Russia, the country has actually had a free entry to the sea, so it continued to lag behind the main Western European countries.

The economic premises of the reforms of the beginning of the 19th century were created by all the development of Russia in the XVII century. - production growth and expansion of the range of agricultural products, the success of the craft occurrence of manufactories, the development of trade and the growth of the economic role of merchants.

2. Upper coup and favoritism in the political life of Russia

"The Epoch of Palace Dobor" was named after the death of Peter I 37-year period of political instability (1725-1762). During this period, the policies of the state determined individual groups of the palace nobility, which actively interfered with the question of the heir to the throne, fought among themselves for power, thus carried out palace coups. Also, the crucial power of palace coups was the Guard, a privileged part of the regular army created by Peter (these are the famous Semyan and Preobrazhensky regiments, in the 30s two new, Izmailovsky and Connogvardeysky) were added to them. Her participation solved the outcome of the case: on whose side of the guard, the group tried to win. The guard was not only a privileged part of Russian troops, she was a representative of a whole class (noble), from whose environment was almost exclusively formed and the interests of which represented. The reason for the intervention of individual groups of the Palace for the political life of the country was published by Peter I on February 5, 1722. The charter "On the heritage of the throne", which canceled "both of the prone pollen who acting before, and the will, and the Cathedral election, replacing that and other personal purpose, The discretion of the reigning sovereign. " Peteri himself did not use this charter. He died on January 28, 1725, without appointing a successor to himself. Therefore, immediately after his death between representatives of the ruling top, the struggle for power began. Also, palace coups testified to the weakness of absolute power in the successors of Peter I, who could not continue reforms with the energy and in the spirit of the side and which could manage the state, only relying on their approaches. Favoritism during this period fluttered with a lush color. Favorites-tempors received an unlimited impact on the state policy.

The only heir of Peter I on the male line was his grandson - the son of executed Tsarevich Alexei Peter. Around the grandson was grouped mainly by representatives of the informative feudal aristocracy, now a few boyars surnames are now. Among them, the leading role was played by Golitsans and Dolgorukhi, and some comrades of Peter I (Field Marshal Prince B.P. Sheremetev, Feldmarshal Nikita Repnin et al.). But the wife of Peter I Catherine claimed the throne. The heirs were two daughters of Peter - Anna (married to the Golucian Prince) and Elizabeth - by that time another minor. A lot contributed to the ambiguity of the overall situation and decree on February 5, 1722, who overturned the old regions of the Preconsession and approved the personal will of the testator into the law. Alternatively, the figures of the Petrovsk era on time were rallied around Catherine's candidacy. These were: A.D. Menshikov, P.I. Yaguzhinsky, P.A. Tolstoy, A.V. Makarov, F. Prokopovich, I.I.Buturlin and others. The question of the successor was solved by the rapid actions of A. Menshikov, who, relying on the guard, carried out the first palace coup in favor of Catherine I (1725-1727) and became an all-powerful temporal.

In 1727, Ekaterina I died. The throne in her will moved to 12-year-old Peter II (1727-1730). Cases in the state continued to finish the Supreme Secret Council. However, it was rearranged in it: Menshikov was removed and exiled with his family to the distant West Easter city of Berezov, and the advice was included in the advice of Tsarevich Osterman and two princes of Dolgoruki and Golitsyn. Favorite Peter II became Ivan Dolgoruky, who had a huge influence on the young Emperor.

In January 1730, Peter II dies from smallpox, and again the question of the candidate for the throne. The Supreme Secretary Council on the proposal of D.Golitsyn stopped the niece of Peter I, his brother Ivan's daughter - Anna Ioannovna, and limited her power. The throne Anne "Verkhovnikov" was proposed on certain conditions - the Conditions, according to which the Empress actually became a chamber puppet. The reign of Anna John (1730-1740) is usually evaluated as some unsound; The Empress itself is characterized as a limited, uneducated, a little-interestful woman who did not trust the Russians, and therefore it was imagined from Mitava and from various "German corners" a bunch of foreign people. "The Germans fell into Russia, exactly sorry from a holey bag - closed the courtyard, the throne was surrounded, they climbed on all incomes in management," wrote Klyuchevsky. Guardsmen, protesting against the condition, demanded that Anna Joanovna remains the same self-alert as her ancestors. Upon arrival in Moscow, Anna was already aware of the mood of wide circles of nobility and guard. Therefore, on February 25, 1730, she ruined the condition and "learn in sovereignty." Having become an autocracy, Anna Ioannovna hurried to find a support mostly among foreigners who occupied the highest posts at the courtyard in the army and the highest governments. A number of Russian surnames also got into the circle of loyal Anne: Saltykov's relatives, P. Yaguzhinsky, A. Cherkasi, A. Volynsky, A. Ushakov. Mittava Favorite Anna Biron became actually the ruler of the country. In the system of power, which has developed at Anna Ioannov, without a bironment, its trusted person, a rude and consistent temporary time, not a single important decision was made.

According to the will, Anna John, her heir was appointed grand-nephew - Ivan Antonovich Braunschweigsky. Regent with it was defined by Biron. Against the hated biron, the palace coup was produced in just a few weeks. Anna Leopoldovna, Anna Leopoldovna, was proclaimed by the government at the Minor Ivan Antonovich. However, there were no changes in politics, all positions continued to remain in the hands of the Germans. On the night of November 25, 1741, the Grenadier Rota of the Preobrazhensky Regiment made a palace coup in favor of Elizabeth - Peter I Daughter (1741-1761). When Elizabeth, a fundamental change occurred in the ruling top of the state apparatus - only the most odious figures were removed. So, the Chancellor of Elizabeth prescribed A.P. Bestumeva-Ryumin, who was at one time right hand and biron creature. The highest Elizabethan Sanovniks also included Brother A.P. Bestumev-Ryumin and N.Yu. Trubetskaya, who was 1740 by the prosecutor General of the Senate. The observed certain continuity of the highest circle of persons who actually carried out control over the nodal issues of foreign and domestic policies, indicated the continuity of this policy itself. With all the similarity of this coup with such palace coups in Russia, the XVIII century. (Top character, Guard shock force), he had a number distinctive features. The shock force of the coup on November 25 was not just a guard, and the guards bases - immigrants from the supplies, expressing patriotic sentiment of the wide layers of the capital's population. The coup had a pronounced anti-minetty, patriotic character. The wide layers of the Russian society, condemning the favoritism of the German temporarys, paid their sympathies towards Peter's daughter - the Russian hear. The peculiarity of the palace coup on November 25 was the fact that Franco-Swedish diplomacy was trying to actively interfere with the internal affairs of Russia and for the offer of assistance to Elizabeth in the struggle for the throne to achieve certain political and territorial concessions from it, meaning a voluntary refusal to conquer Peter I.

The successor of Elizabeth Petrovna became her nephew Karl-Peter-Ulrich - Duke of Holsteinsky - Son of the senior sister Elizabeth Petrovna - Anna, and it means on the mother's line - grandson of Peter I. He climbed the throne under the name Peter III (1761-1762) February 18, 1762 G. was published a manifesto about the sufficiency of "all Russian noble nobility of liberty and freedom", i.e. On exemption from the mandatory service. "Manifesto", who was removed from the class of a century-old service, was perceived by the nobility with enthusiasm. Petro III was published decrees to abolish the secret office, about permission to return to Russia who fled abroad the splitters with the prohibition of prosecution for the split. However, soon the policy of Peter III caused discontent in society, restored the capital society against him. Special discontent among officers was caused by Peter III's refusal from all the conquests during the period of the victorious seven-year war with Prussia (1755-1762), which Lead Elizaveta Petrovna. In the guard ripe conspiracy in order to overthrow Peter III. As a result of the latter in the XVIII century. The palace coup carried out on June 28, 1762, Peter III's wife was erected into Russian throne, which became Empress Catherine II (1762-1796).

Thus, palace coups did not entail changes in political, and even more social system Societies and came down to the struggle for the power of various noble groups pursuing their, most often mercenary interests. At the same time, the specific policy of each of the six monarchs had its own characteristics, sometimes important for the country. In general, socio-economic stabilization and foreign policy successes achieved in the era of Elizabeth's Board created conditions for more accelerated development and new breakthroughs in foreign policy, which will occur under Catherine II. The reasons for the palace coups scientists-historians see in the decree of Peter I "On the change in the Procedure of the Preconsession", in the collision of the corporate interests of various groups of the nobility. With light hand V.O. Klyuchevsky Many historians were evaluated 1720 - 1750s. As the time of weakening Russian absolutism. N.Ya. Eidelman generally considered the palace coup, as a peculiar reaction of the nobility on a sharp increase in the independence of the state under Peter I and as historical experience showed, he writes, bearing in mind the "unbridled" of Petrovsky absolutism, - that such a huge focus of power is dangerous for its carrier, and For the ruling class. " VO himself Klyuchevsky, also associated the offensive of political instability after Peter I death with the "Samovlasty" of the last, resolved, in particular, to break the traditional order of the Preconsession (when the throne passed on a straight man's descending line) - the charter of February 5, 1722. The autoclast was granted the right to It is possible to appoint a successor to himself at his own request. "Rarely selfhood punished itself so cruelly, as in the face of Peter this law on February 5," Kuyevsky concluded. Peter I did not have time to appoint himself the heir, the throne, according to Klyuchevsky, turned out to be given "to the will of the case and became his toy": not the law determined who to sit on the throne, and the Guard, which was the "dominant force" in that period. Thus, the reasons that caused this era of coups and temporarys were rooted, on the one hand, in the state of the royal family, and on the other, in the peculiarities of the environment that managed business.

3. Ekaterina II.

Catherine II was born on 21.04.1729 in the German seaside city of Shttin, died 11/06/1796 in the royal village (Pushkin). The nee Sophia Frederick Augusta Anhalt Czyrrskaya occurred from the poor German Prince. Catherine II was a rather complicated and unconditional outstanding personality. On the one hand she is a pleasant and loving woman, with the other major statesman. From early childhood, her everyday lesson was learned - sick and pretend. In 1745, Ekaterina II adopted the Orthodox faith and was married to the heir to the Russian throne, the future of Peter III. Having hit to Russia with a fifteen-year-old girl, she asked himself two more lessons - to master the Russian language, customs and learn to like. But with all the abilities, adapt to the Grand Princess was difficult: there were attacks from the Empress (Elizabeth Petrovna) and disregard from her husband (Peter Fedorovich). Her pride suffered. Then Catherine appealed to literature. Possessing non-lightable abilities, will and hardworking, studied Russian, read a lot, acquired extensive knowledge. She read a lot of books: French enlighteners, antique authors, special works on history and philosophy, compositions of Russian writers. As a result, Catherine learned the ideas of public benefit enlighteners as the highest goal of a statesman, about the need to upbringing and educating subjects, about the primacy of laws in society. In 1754, Catherine had a son (Pavel Petrovich), the future heir to the Russian throne. But the child was taken from Mother to Apartments Empress. In December 1761, Empress Elizabeth Petrovna died. Peter III entered the throne. Catherine II was distinguished by the vast workability, will of the will, dedication, courage, cunning, hypocrisy, unlimited ambition and vanity, in general, with all the features characterizing a "strong woman". She could suppress her emotions in favor of developed rationalism. She was inherent in a special talent - conquer general sympathies. Catherine slowly, but right, moved to the Russian throne, and, in the end, took power from her husband. Shortly after the top of the unpopular among Peter III's generic nobility, relying on the Guards Shelves, overtook him.

06/28/1762 From the face of Catherine was drawn up a manifesto, talking about the causes of the coup, about the threat of the integrity of the Fatherland. 06/29/1762 Peter III signed a manifesto about his renunciation. The new Empress was readily sworn not only the guard shelves, but also the Senate and Synod. However, among the opponents of Peter III there were influential people who were considered more fair to build the throne of young Paul, and Catherine to rule the Son to rule before the age of majority. At the same time, it was proposed to create the Imperial Council, limiting the power of the Empress. It was not included in Catherine's plans. To make everyone recognize the legality of His power, she decided to cry as soon as possible in Moscow. The ceremony was committed on 09/22/1762 in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. By such a case, the people were invited to a rich treat. From the first days of the reign of Catherine wanted to be popular in the widest masses of the people, she defiantly attended a manty manty, worshiped to holy places.

The reign time of Catherine II is called the Epoch of "Enlightened Absolutism". The meaning of enlightened absolutism is in the policy of following the ideas of enlightenment expressing in the conduct of reforms that destroyed some of the most obsolete feudal institutions (and sometimes we made a step towards bourgeois development). The idea of \u200b\u200bthe state with an enlightened monarch, able to transform social life on new, reasonable principles, received widespread in the XVIII century. The monarchs themselves in the context of the decomposition of feudalism, the aging of capitalist defendant, the dissemination of the ideas of the enlightenment was forced to stand on the path of reforms.

The development and implementation of the beginning of enlightened absolutism in Russia acquired the nature of the holistic state-political reform, during which a new state and legal appearance was formed. absolute monarchy. At the same time, for socio-legal policies, class disengagement was characterized: nobility, meshness and peasantry. Inner I. foreign policy The second half of the XVIII century, prepared by the events of the previous reigns, was marked by important legislative acts, outstanding military events and significant territorial joins. This is due to the activities of large state and military leaders: A.R. Vorontsova, P.A. Rumyantseva, A.G. Orlova, G.A. Potemkin, A.A. Besborodko, A.V. Suvorova, F.F. Ushakov and others. Ekaterina II itself actively participated in public life. Thirst for power and glory was a significant motive of its activities. The policy of Catherine II in his class orientation was noble. In the 1960s, Catherine II covered the noble essence of his policy with a liberal phrase (which is typical of enlightened absolutism). The same goal was chased by busy intercourse with Voltaire and French encyclopedists and generous monetary sentences them.

The tasks of the "enlightened monarch" Catherine II imagined so: "1. You need to enlighten a nation that should be managed. 2. You need to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws. 3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police in the state. 4. It is necessary to contribute to the flow of the state and make it abundant. 5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspireing respect for neighbors. " BUT B. real life The declarations of the Empress often dispersed with affairs.

4. Internal Policy Catherine II

The main task of Internal Policy Catherine II considered the reform of the central bodies of public administration. To this end, the Senate was divided into 6 departments and deprived of the legislative initiative. All legislative and part of the Executive Government of Catherine II focused in his hands.

In 1762, a manifesto "on the liberty of the noble", where the nobles were exempted from mandatory military service.

In 1764, the secularization of land was carried out.

In 1767, a laid commission is running. Ekaterina II convened a special commission to compile the Code of New Laws of the Russian Empire instead of the Cathedral Casting of 1649. Under this law, the current structure of Russian society was envisaged. But in 1768, these commissions were dissolved, there was no new legislation.

In 1775, so that it was easier to manage the state, Catherine II issued an institution to manage the provinces, which strengthened the bureaucratic apparatus of the government in the field and increasing the number of provinces to 50. The province of no more than 400 thousand inhabitants. Several provinces were governance. Governors and governors were elected by Catherine II from Russian nobles. They acted on its decions. The governor's assistants were the vice-governor, two provincial advisers and the provincial prosecutor. This is the provincial board and leads all the affairs. State revenues were provided to the State Chamber (income and expenses of the treasury, government property, sputter, monopoly, etc.). He headed the state chamber Vice-Governor. The provincial prosecutor conducted all court institutions. The cities introduced the position of Government as appointed by the government. The province shared on the counties. Many large villages were addressed to county cities. In the county, power belonged to the elected by the Noble Assembly, Captain Corps. The court established in each county town. In the provincial city of the highest court. Charging could bring a complaint to the Senate. For more convenient, the treasury was opened in each county town. Created was a system of a class court: for each class (nobles, citizens, state peasants) their special judicial institutions. Some of them introduced the principle of elected court gases. The center of gravity in the control was moved to the place. There was a need for a number of colleges, they were abolished; Military, maritime, foreign and commerce college remained. The local government system established by the provincial reform of 1775 was preserved until 1864, and the administrative-territorial division introduced by it until the October Revolution. The nobility was recognized as a special main estate. Also special estates were recognized merchants and burghers. Nobles were to bear public service and carry out agriculture, and merchants and breasts to engage in trade and industry. Some areas used to be managed otherwise, Catherine II took care that new legislation was introduced everywhere.

In 1785, a pledged diploma came out. "The grades for the rights of the liberty and the advantages of the noble Russian nobility" was a set of noble privileges, decorated by a legislative act of Catherine II of 21.04.1785. Freedom of nobles from the mandatory service was confirmed. The full liberation of the nobility made sense for several reasons:

1) there was a sufficient number of people prepared in various matters of military and civilian management;

2) the noblemen themselves were aware of the need for service to the state and counted for the honor of shedding blood for the fatherland;

3) When the nobles were overwhelmed from the farm lands came to decline, which fell into the country's economy.

Now many of them could manage their peasants themselves. And the attitude towards the peasants from the owner was much better than by the Random Manager. The landowner was interested in his peasants were not ruined. The humbleness was complained by the priesthood of the state in the state and was released from payment of filters, they could not be subjected to corporal punishment, only the nobility court could judge. Only noblemen had the right to own land and fortress peasants, they also owned their subsoils in their estates, could engage in trade and arrange the plants, their houses were free from damage, the estates were not subject to confiscation. The nobility received the right to self-government, amounted to the "noble society", whose body was noble Assembly, convened every three years in the province and the county, who eating the provincial and county leaders of the nobility, court assessions and captain-corrections, headed by the county administration. This humbled diploma nobility was called to widely participate in local government. In Catherine II, the nobles occupied the posts of local executive and judicial power. The pledged diplomacy was to strengthen the position of the nobility and consolidate his privileges. The pledged diploma testified to the crown of Russian absolutism to strengthen its social support in the setting of aggravation of class contradictions. The nobility turned into a politically dominant estate in the state.

04/21/1785- Along with the humble diploma, the Light "Chunked Most of the Cities" saw the Light. This legislative act of Catherine II established new elective urban institutions, slightly expanding the circle of voters. Citizens were divided into six discharges on property and social grounds: "Real City Oils" owners of real estate from nobles, officials, clergy; merchants of three guilds; Craftsmen recorded in Come; foreigners and nonresident; "Eminent citizens"; Posadsky, i.e. All other citizens, feeding in the city of fishing or needlework. These discharges on a humble diploma of the city received the foundations of self-government, in a certain sense, similar fundamentals of the humble diplomas. Once every three years, the meeting of the "Grand Society" was convened, which included only the most wealthy citizens. The permanent city institution was the "General Hard Duma", consisting of the urban head and six vowels. Judicial elected institutions in cities were magistrates. However, the privileges of citizens on the backdrop of noble permissiveness turned out to be irrelevant, the urban self-government bodies were tightly controlled by the Tsarist administration, an attempt to lay the foundations of the bourgeois class failed.

Catherine is a traditional figure, despite the negative attitude towards the Russian past, despite finally, that she has made new techniques in management, new ideas in the public turnover. The duality of those traditions she followed determines and dual attitude towards her descendants. If one is not without reason indicate that inner activity Catherine legalized the abnormal consequences of the dark epochs of the XVIII century, others bow to the magnitude of its foreign policy. Historical meaning The activities of Catherine II is determined quite easily on the basis of what was mentioned above on the individual parties to Catherine policy. Many of its endeavors externally spectacular, wondered with a wide scale, led to a modest result or gave not expected and often erroneous result. It can also be said that Catherine simply embodied the change, dictated by time, continued the policy scheduled to previous reigns. Or recognize in it a paramount historical figure who made the second, after Peter I, step along the path of Europeanization of the country, and the first on the way to reform it in the liberal-educational spirit.

Bibliography

1. MINENKO N.A. History of Russia from ancient times to the second halves XIX. century, - Ekaterinburg: Publishing house, 1995

2. Klyuchevsky V.O. Common History course, -M.: Science, 1994

3. Kobrin V.K. Troubled time - lost opportunities. The history of the Fatherland: people, ideas, solutions. -M.: Eksmo, 1991

4. Bushushch L.P. Illustrated history of the USSR. XV-XVII centuries. Manual for teachers and students ped. In-Tov. M., "Enlightenment", 1970.

5. Danilova L.V. Historical conditions The development of Russian nationalities during the formation and strengthening of the centralized state in Russia // Questions of the formation of Russian nationality and nation. Digest of articles. M.-L., Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1958.

6. Druzhinin N.M. Socio-economic conditions for the formation of the Russian bourgeois nation // Questions of the formation of Russian nationality and nation. Digest of articles. M.-L., Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1958.

7. Chongtulov V.T. and others. Economic history of the USSR: Educational. For econe. universities. - m. ,: Higher.

8. Borzakovsky P. "Empress Ekaterina Two Great", M.: Panorama, 1991.

9. Brikner A. "History of Catherine Second", M.: Contempor, 1991.

10. Zichekin I.A., Kokileev I.N. "Russian history: from Ekaterina Great to Alexander II" M.: Thought, 1994.

11. Pavlenko N. "Ekaterina Great" // Homeland. - 1995. - №10-11, 1996. - №1,6.

12. "Russia and Romanov: Russia under the Scepter of Romanov". Essays from Russian history during the time from 1613 to 1913. Sub. PN Zhukovich. M.: "Russia". Rostov-on-Don: A / O "Tanais", 1992

13. Derevko A.P. "Russian history: tutorial. " M.: "Russia", 2007

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Collecting Moscow of Russian land (14th century), the acquisition of political independence (15 c.), The folding of a centralized state has had a significant impact on the development of entrepreneurial activities.

In the second half of the 15th century. The number of merchants increased significantly, and the field of its activity has noticeably expanded. There were merchants who are constantly related to various lands of the country or with foreign states. It is by this period that the most mentiones are most of all references on bickers, surgeons, guests of Moscow, Novgorod, Pskov. These names continued to reflect the membership of the merchants to individual territories or the main direction of trading operations. However, the guest was already more abruptly opposed to the merchant, a bangster and surgery, and the chronicles did not mix the first with other trading persons.

With the association of Russian lands, Moscow has become not only a royal residence, but also by the concentration of the country's trade. Higher metropolitan merchants acquired more and more influence on political events. It is also characteristic that merchants began to actively subsidize the royal power. With the help of guests and Sukonchikov, Prince Yuri Galitsky at the beginning of the 15th century. managed to pay off with his numerous creditors. The specific princes became often debtors of merchants and rospeurs. Rich Moscow guests (V. Hovrin, A. Shikhov, G. Bobyany) were repeatedly supplied with the money of great princes. They also participated in the stone construction of the 15th century. So, in 1425-1427. At the expense of the Moscow guest, Yermol (the Rodonarchist of the Yermoliny Dynasty) was built by the Spassky Cathedral of Andronikov Monastery in Moscow.

In foreign policy affairs, guests have increasingly committed a trip abroad with ambassadors, fulfilling the role of translators and consultants on political and trade affairs. This put them in specific relationships with the state power apparatus and allocated from the environment of other trade in Moscow.

In turn, the merchant tip was used in the interests of the unifying policy of Moscow princes. Officially fixing certain duties for Moscow guests, the government turned them into the conductors of the grand mining policy of Moscow princes. Officially enshrine certain duties for Moscow guests, the government turned them into loyal conductors of great-road policies both within the state and outside it.

In the 16th century Trade began to take all the large sizes. The center of the business activity of Russian cities in 15-17 centuries. Guests' yard became. The merchants stopped here, their goods were kept and trade operations were made. The living courtyard was a rectangular area, a coated stone or a wooden wall of a serf type with towers on the corners, and above the gate. On the inner sides of the walls, two-, three-story shopping and warehouses were installed. To pay customs duties, the merchants built a customs hub. The area of \u200b\u200bthe courtyard gradually began to be caught up with stores, leaving for internal and external sides.

Government policy for commercial and industrial circles during the reign of Ivan Grozny was distinguished by inconsistency. On the one hand, the king provided signs of attention to those representatives of the merchants that constantly emphasized their loyalty and provided it with not only material, but also political support. The greatest fame acquired the genus of Stroganov, known for its power from the 16th century. The founder of the Giant Economy of Anika Fedorovich Stroganov (1497-1570), who settled in his generic nest, (Solvychygodsk), was able to crush competitors and subordinate to its control the largest salt fishes of the country, in addition, the stroganov had fermented and forge crafts, fair trade Ferry mining, fish, icons and other diverse goods.

The most famous role of Stroganov in colonial activity on the outskirts of Russia is most well known. Children of the founder of the trading house - Yakov, Grigory and Semyon formed a peculiar border state on the ways to Siberia, focusing on its territory economic and political rights, using the fact that the government, undersonated by the Livonian War, could not pay back new territories.

In 1579, in the possessions of Stroganov, there were one town, 39 villages, hottings with 203 yards and one they found by the monastery. The importance of the activities of representatives of this kind is to approve the influence of Russia into Siberian lands. Note the other side of their business activity. Removing profits from the usual boa of loan operations with peasants, land and trading persons, guests, the stroganov built crafts with manual specialized labor.

Another side of the policy of Ivan Grozny in relation to merchants was built on a hard terror against its part in the conditions of Okrichnina. This was most brightly manifested in the defeat of Novgorod (1570). The researchers paid attention to the goal of the promotion: first, to replenish the empty royal treasury due to the robbery of the rich trading and industrial top of Novgorod; Secondly, terrorizing the Posad, especially the lower layers of the urban population, suppress elements of discontent in it.

One way or another, but among the killed guests of Novgorod, representatives of rich families, merchant elders. A rapid translation of 250 families of the tip of the mall in Moscow became a blow on the economy of the North-Western land. In an effort to subjugate the rich merchants, Ivan Grozny united them with artisans and small city traders in one estate of landing people. All this testified that the pressure of the state made it impossible to expand independence not only merchants, but also the elites of the country. The situation in which the self-adjustment was subordinate to the activities of the merchant to the goals of the feudal state.

The 17th century can be called the frontier, marked the beginning of the gradual undermining positions of feudalism and at the same time growth of market relations. However, the events of the end of the 16th-early 17th centuries. They did not leave special hopes for the success of enterprising people. Lipherette troubled time did not create so necessary stability. However, by the middle of the 17th century. It was possible to overcome the consequences of a nationwide catastrophe.

The emerging All-Russian market led the characteristic features of Russian merchants, increasingly acting as a bidder. It was the buyers who won the dominant position in the market, ousting direct producers.

During this period, two forms of capital accumulation were clearly shown. The leading began wholesale, which was constant. She was accompanied by a buying merchandise of goods from direct producers, their popup from other merchants. Mercury has ever more actively used the state and private loan. Wholesale goods were predominantly products (bread, salt, fish, meat) and raw materials (hemp, leather).

The second form of capital accumulation was stateless contracts, their profitability was due to the fact that the treasury was pre-paid part of the amount due in a row. This money, the contractor's merchant could invest in any enterprise at its discretion.

Under the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676), a slow growth of manufactory production begins. Initially, the large industry was formed mainly in the departments of the womb. The transition to the construction of factories with partial use of free-controlled labor was complicated by the process of strengthening serfdom. Government events in the second half of the 17th century. Foundation for subsequent reforms were prepared: in 1649, the Cathedral Code was given the landing communities the exclusive right to engage in trade and industry, taking it from Slobod. In the 1650-1660s. The tax duty was unified in the interests of domestic merchants.

The customs charter of 1653 and the Novoto Charter of 1667 became acts of Russian statehood, which were a clearly pronounced protectionist character and meaning positive changes in Alexey Mikhailovich's policies.

Foreign merchants have had a higher tax on the sale of goods in the domestic market. Cancellation of small fees leaving Russian merchants contributed to the development of trade links geography.

Thus, Russia did not bypass the impact of mercantilism policies. For her, first of all, characterized by the following formula: the country's wealth is expressed in cash capital. Mercalists focused on foreign trade, the profit from which was expressed in a profitable trading balance. At the same time, they understood that the basis of trade is the commodity mass entering the market, so the need to promote agriculture, mining and manufacturing industries also defended.

In the second half of the 17th century. Future entrepreneurship centers were laid in the country: metallurgy and metalworking (enterprises of the Tula-Serpukhovsky, Moscow regions); Production of wood products (Tver, Kaluga); Jewelry (Upper Ustyug, Novgorod, Tikhvin, Nizhny Novgorod). However, before registration of the class of entrepreneurs was still far.

The final formation of serfdom led to a constant increase in the payments of peasants in the treasury and feudal. This, in turn, entailed the extremely slow demand of the fortress village for commercial goods and slow growth of the manufacturing industry. The percentage of trading peasants in the total mass of the rural population was not so great. The dominance of feudal relations made it difficult to accumulate funds, so necessary for the exercise of trading, was syrupted by the initiative of the peasants.

Nevertheless, the peasants merchants affected the formation of the All-Russian market. This manifested itself in participating in the auction. The characteristic features of the peasant trade was the presence of a small amount of free funds, a constant need for a loan, lack of specialization in a certain form of activity and stability in a number of groups of merchants. Double control was carried out over the trading peasants: on the one hand, both above the peasants, on the other, both above the group of commercial and industrial population.

As for the merchant plants, they remained typical feudal phenomenon, since their goal was to facilitate the merchant trade, by the production of goods that do not require high costs. The entrepreneurial activity of trading peasants in general differed little from the functioning of the capital of Posad merchants, which was due to the level of development of Russia of the end of the 17th century.

Thus, entrepreneurship sprouts pierced with great labor the soil of feudalism. Although the converting moods are twist in the air to the top of Peter 1, however, the implementation of the most complicated task to strengthen the economic, military and political power of Russia; In new realities, it was associated with the new stage of the country's development.