Maidzi's era in Japan briefly. Epoch Maidzi in Japan

Chapter 1. Prerequisites and the course of revolution

The adopted date of the beginning of the Revolution of Mayji, 1868, is very conditional. This year can be limited only if you take the version of the official Japanese historiography on the events of Maidie Isin, the essence of which is reduced to the restoration of the power of the emperor. The true content of these events can be estimated, only taking into account the whole complex of the main events, which took several years and which are part of the composite part of the revolution concept of 1868

The state coup on January 3, 1868, as a result of which Syugunat was eliminated, led to power of immigrants from low-edge soursuresti, expressing the interests of a new class of landowners and commercial and industrial bourgeoisie. The Revolution of Maidzi is a series of events that led to significant changes in the Japanese political and social structure. The four-year period from 1866 to 1869, which includes the last years of the Edo period and the beginning of the Meiji period. Restoration of Maidzi was a direct consequence of the opening of Japan for the Western countries, which occurred after the "black ships" of Commander Matthew Parry.

In 1853, an American squadron appeared off the coast of Japan. Her Commander - Admiral Parry Ultimatically demanded the conclusion of a trading agreement on American conditions, who actually deprived Japan of customs autonomy. Under the threat of use of force, the Japanese government was forced to obey. In 1858, an unequal agreement was signed, according to which Japan could not establish duties for imported goods above a certain percent (from 5 to 35), the exterriting of Americans in Japan should recognize (that is, their frequency of Japanese courts), etc. Soon, almost similar contracts were signed with European powers (England, Holland, France, etc.). "Not satisfied with the possibilities of open robbery of Japan, foreign powers sought to transform it into the colony." In 1862, the English fleet subjected to the devastating bombardment of the city of Kagoshima to force the Japanese authorities to pay huge contribution for the murder of an English citizen. In 1864, the United Navy, England, France and Holland - the main colonial powers of that time - fired at the fortress of the Simonoski, forcing the Japanese authorities to meet the requirements of the unhindered passage of ships through the Simonoski Strait. The danger of the colonial enslavement of Japan was obvious. This led to the merger of antipodeal struggle and national liberation movement.

During this period, the head of the state was nominally considered the emperor, but the real power was in the hands of Sögun - the Supreme official who was the commander-in-chief and the head of the entire state administration apparatus, which uncontrolled the executive and administrative, fiscal and legislative functions. Starting from the XVII century. The post of Sögun was occupied by the representatives of the Tokugawa House, the richest feudal clan of the country, opposed by any progressive reform. In such conditions, the specific tasks of the Prince of Self-Samurai movement were formulated: to overthrow Sögunat, restore the power of the emperor and on his behalf to carry out the necessary reforms. In Japanese official historiography, this period is commonly called the "Restoration of Maidzi" (Meiji - the name of the reign of Emperor Mutshito; "Maidzi" - "Enlightened Government").
"Sögun had along with his own straight vassals in his own possession of about 1/4 of the land of the country. The rest of the land was liable to use the princes (Daimo) (about 260 principalities in 18-19 centuries). Daimo had his vassals from the lowest nobility - samurai, who usually received a salary in the form of rice solders. With the decline of the principalities, many samurai went to the city and turned into small merchants and employees, teachers, etc. "1

"The Revolution of Maidzi was not the result of the victorious uprising of urban santenotes and landless peasants, as it was in France, but was an agreement achieved between one wing. feudal class "The largest todzam, as representatives of whom Samurai and Goynin, and the richest city merchant". " The establishment of an absolute monarchy as a form of state power (in the formal constitutional rule, introduced later), compromise measures against the top of the former class of feudalists, the creation of a new class of landowners using a large extent test forms of operation - all this respects half, the incomplete nature of the revolution.

The future monarch reformer was born on November 3, 1852 in the Imperial Palace in Kyoto. Mutsukhito was the son of Emperor Komay and his concubine of the Esiko. Although she was not the official wife of the emperor, Mutsukhito in Japanese law was considered a prince, and since the rest of the Komey children died in early childhood, Mutsukhito turned out to be over time the only contender for chrysanthemum throne. However, then in Japan, to be an emperor at all meant to manage the country. Since ancient times, the emperor, who considered the descendant of the gods, and the court aristocracy were engaged only by the fulfillment of numerous religious rituals, designed to provide the country calm, good rice harvests and protection against earthquakes, while the real power was in the hands of Segunov - military dictators from the most powerful samurai military dictators clans. Since the XVII century, the state was ruled by the seguns from the genus Tokugawa, whose residence was located in Edo (current Tokyo), and the emperors were isolated in Kyoto and did not even have the right to leave their palace. Tokugawa, who came to power as a result of a bloody civil war, considered their duty to provide the country peace and peace, and it was able to have been able for two and a century. The segunat stopped endless feudal wars, introduced a strict-in-law system, in which everyone knew his place, brought to a minimum of contacts with foreign people and even forbade the Japanese to leave their native shores. The revolving side of stability and the world was stagnation, and in the XIX century Japan had to be aware than fraught with a lag in technical progress.

The future emperor who received the name of Sati But Mia (Prince Sati), held a majority of childhood in the Nakayaam family in Kyoto, according to custom, to trust the upbringing of imperial children with noble families. It was formally adopted by Asaco Nigo (later widowing Empress Eise), the main wife of Emperor Komay on July 11, 1860. At the same time, he received the name Mutsukhito and the title of Synno: (imperial prince, and therefore the possible heir to the throne). Crown Prince Mutsukhito inherited Chrysanthemum Throne on February 3, 1867 at the age of fifteen. Later, this year was declared the first year of Meiji, which means "enlightened rule." This laid the beginning of the tradition to declare a new era with the climb on the throne of the new emperor, who after death received the name of the era of his board.2 September 1867. Emperor Maidzi married Haruko (May 28, 1849-19, 1914), the third daughter of Lord Ityiy Tadako, one The time occupied the position of the left minister. Famous later as Empress Syuben, she was the first imperial spouse for several hundred years, who received the title of whom (literally: the imperial wife). Although she was the first Japanese empress who played a public role, she had no children. Emperor Maidzi had fifteen children from five Freint. Only five of the fifteen lived to an adult condition: a prince, born from Lady Naroon (1855-1943), Yanagivar Mitsunaru's daughters, and four princesses born from Lady Satiko (1867-1947), the eldest daughter Count Sono Motosati), and had children. On the role of the emperor himself in the era of Maidzi go spores. "He did not manage Japan definitely, but what kind of he had an impact - unknown."

January 3, 1868 The Maidzi government was created, the name "Sanseuk" ("three departments"). Maidzi included two groups of state counselors: 10 senior (hydraulic) and 20 younger (Santo); He headed him chairman (Sosai). A member of the Imperial Surname Prince Arisugava was appointed for the Chairman. The senior advisers were members of the imperial surname, Kuge and Daimo from the principalities of Satsumum, Tosa, Aki, Owar and Ethidzen; Junior advisers-Five Kuga and three samurai from each of the above principalities, among which were the main leadership leaders for the overthrow of Sögunat - Okubo, Goto, Ithagaki, Soezima.

The rulers of the principalities, adjacent to the south-western coalition or who did not actively oppose the new government retained their power. The possessions and cities belonging directly to Sigunat were subordinated to the new government and are reorganized in prefectures (CAN) and metropolitan prefectures (FU). The head of the prefectures were delivered by governors, at the head of the cities - the city units appointed by the central government.

Military actions of the government against the Tokugava troops demanded the reorganization of the state apparatus. In February 1868, the first partial reorganization of the government was carried out, as a result of which seven administrative departments were formed: on the affairs of the state religion of Sino, internal affairs, foreign affairs, army, fleet, justice, legislation.

Each department headed a member of the Imperial Family or Kuge, who before that were senior advisers. Junior advisers took posts of officials administrative departments. The created management at the head of government included the most prominent figures of the South-Western Coalition - Kido, Okubo, Goto, Komatsu and others.

"Although the highest posts in the government of Maidzi were distributed among a narrow circle of people who belonged to the imperial family, the court aristocracy and the Higher Nobility (Daimo), actually the apparatus of the new government was in the hands of the main representatives of the lowest southerness of the South-Western Principles (Satsuma, Tzu, Tosa Both Hidzen) who served as leaders of the movement for overthrowing Sögunat. "

"On April 6, 1868, a meeting of the court aristocracy (KUGE) and feudal princes (Daimo) were convened in Kyoto's palace, in the presence of whom the juvenile emperor Mutsukhito proclaimed the so-called oath promise of the new government, which consisted of the following five items:

1. A broad assembly will be created, and all public affairs will be solved in accordance with public opinion.

2. All people, both rulers, and managed, should unanimously devote themselves to successful nation.

3. All military and civilians and all common people will be allowed to carry out their own aspirations, and develop their activities.

4. All bad customs will be abolished; Justice and impartiality will be observed, as they are understood by everyone.

5. Knowledge will be borrowed all over the world, and in this way the foundation of the empire will be strengthened. "

It was the first declaration of a new government about the basic principles of its policies, announced in that period when a civil war went. The government proclaimed the "modernization of the country" policy. At the same time, the declaration was designed to strengthen national unity, to ensure the support of the government from the nobility and a large trading and marketable bourgeoisie.

Giving promises to convene a broad meeting, about solving all public affairs in accordance with public opinion, the new government expects to provide support for samurai and bourgeoisie in the fight against the reactionary forces of the old regime. Having victory in the Civil War, it refused to fulfill these promises. The authorities immediately took measures to suppress folk speeches. At about the time when the imperial "oath" was proclaimed, the cities and villages were announced by government orders, prohibiting the population to unite in defense of their interests, to contact the authorities with requests for the facilitation of their fate, etc.

In 1868, an unfinished bourgeois revolution occurred in Japan. Inside the antiso-coalition of the South-Western principal, there were two currents. Supporters of one stood for the armed overthrow of Sögunat and the creation of an absolutist government headed by the emperor instead. This flow was called "Tobacuha", its main slogan was "Tobacu" (overthrowing sigunate). Supporters of another basic principle of their policies proclaimed "management through open discussion" ("CogisAtai Ron"). They were against the armed overthrow of Sögunat, as it was believed that the use of force would inevitably cause civil war in the country and can unleash the revolutionary speeches of the masses. The first of them was headed by okubo, it had the largest number of supporters in Satsuma and Tsu; The second, at the head of which was Gotho Södyziro, was presented in the main Samurai Tosa.

Both currents performed under the slogan of the restoration of the imperial power, but in tactically and in determining: the nature of the new power of their platform was different. True, the positions and supporters of okubo and supporters were significantly determined by fractional interests, the struggle of these two flows for a leading role in the antisoga movement and, consequently, for the leading position in the new government, which should have changed Sögunat. The head of the principality of Tosa - Yamanouthi - and his trusted persons (Goto and others) put forward a compromise plan for the elimination of dvoevsty (Sögunat and the Imperial Dvor) without the use of armed forces. According to this plan, the segun Keiki was supposed to abandon the supreme power in favor of the emperor. At the same time it was assumed that Khaiki would still remain the head of the Tokugawa's head with the same rights as other major daimos, and all public affairs would be solved by the noble representative body, the head of which was scheduled to appoint a deprived Sögun title of Keiki.

On October 29, 1867, Goto, on behalf of Prince Yamanuti, handed over the segun, who was at this time in Kyoto, the appeal in which he was offered to "return" the Supreme Power to the Emperor. In this appeal it was said: "Since the appearance of foreigners, we continued to argue among themselves, causing extensive public discussions. East and West acted with weapons against each other, and the civil war is continuously, as a result of which we are insulting from foreign powers. The reason for all this is that the country's management is conducted from two centers and the attention of the empire is divided. The course of events put a revolution in order, and the old system cannot continue longer. Your Highness needs to return the Supreme Power to the Emperor and thus lay the foundation on which Japan can be elevated as equal to all other countries. " An extensive document was attached to the appeal, signed by the leaders of the Principality of Tosa. It set out the basic principles of the policies of the new government, in particular, it was indicated that the country's management should be transferred to the emperor; all public affairs, including questions state Device, the publication of laws should be solved by the legislative body of the Empire. On November 3, 1867, a secret meeting of Tobacuha leaders with Okubo, Saigo and Komatsu (from the Principality of Satsuma), Khirodzava and Sinagawa (from the Tsuju), Girodzava and Sinagawa (from Aki), Cuzzi (from Aki) and others, on which a specific overthrow of Sögunat armed way.

The meeting agreed on the issue of the allocation of troops from each principality in the combined army created and agreed with Mitsui, Coneer and other rich merchants Kyoto and Osaka on financing the latest military operations. After the okubo meeting, Saigo and Komatsu, together with the arrogant nobility, presented to this grouping, were awarded to the Mutsuchito Emperor of Mutsukhito and the draft imperial rescript on the immediate overthrow of Syugunata. On November 18 in the residence of the Ivakura, one of the most influential persons at the courtyard, this Reskipte was awarded on behalf of the emperor to representatives of the principalities of Satsumu and Tsu. At the same time, the Imperial Regulation on the pardon of Mori, Prince Temia, and the restoration of him in the same rank and rights was announced.

The approximate Segun Kuge Nakayam immediately reported to the caches about these events. The next day, on November 9, the official statement of Keiki was followed on the return of the Supreme State of the Emperor. This "voluntary renunciation" was clearly designed to break the planned plan of the military performance of the South-Western Coalition. At the same time, Keiki as the head of Tokugawa's house sought to preserve his huge land possessions, which were over one-quarter of the entire territory of the country. Segun expected that, having colossal income from his own possessions and, in his submission, most Fuday-Daimos, he will be able to keep a leadership role in the new government and at the court. In the handling of the segun on his renunciation, it was indicated that he was taking this step only with the condition that the noble legislative assembly would be created, consisting of the highest palace nobility, princes and samurai.

"Segun Keiki was notified that his refusal of the Supreme State in principle was accepted by the courtyard, but that the final settlement of the issue of power will occur in the near future at the Extraordinary Meeting of All Daimo in Kyoto. Henceforth, before the convening of the meeting and the creation of a new government, he was proposed to continue to carry out all the functions inherent in the head of the government. "

However, the movement for the overthrow of Sögunat continued to grow. Tobacuha leaders were not going to stop at what. Oyasi set a goal to finally destroy the domination of the Tokugawa's house, to deprive the segun not only the political power, but also its economic base.

The decisive position of the leaders of Tobakuha was primarily due to the fact that in this wing of the antisozhunsky movement there was a strong influence of the bourgeoisie and the lower layers of the nobility, which were hostile not only to Sögunat, but also to all of the higher nobility. They have achieved not only the transfer of the power of Segun by the emperor, but also carrying out some transformations. These transformations, without infringing the essential interests of the nobility, should know to a certain extent to satisfy the requirements of large and medium bourgeoisie, new landowners.

On November 12, 1867, Okubo, Saigo, Hirodzava and other leaders of the southwestern coalition went to their principalities for organizing additional troops in Kyoto. Soon after that, Simadzu arrived in Kyoto at the head of the three thousandths of the army and were presented in combat readiness for another 10 thousand people. Following the troops of Satsuma in Kyoto, the troops, aki and other principalities began to arrive. From the military units of the five principalities-Satsuma, Aki, Tosa, Ethnzep and Owar, a new (antisozhunskaya) army under the command of Saigo Takamori was formed. On December 3, the meeting of representatives of the 40 Vassal Principles of Tokugawa Houses was held in Kyoto, which approved the decision of Sögunat about renunciation from the supreme power in favor of the emperor.

On the morning of January 3, 1868, on behalf of the emperor, a decree was issued on the removal of the troops of the kinship of Tokugawa of the rulers of the Principles of Aizz and the Kuwan from the carrier of the guard service at the main gates of the Imperial Palace. The protection of the gate of the palace was instructed by Saigo's troops. On the same day, at three o'clock in the afternoon, the clocks missed the Palace of the three members of the imperial family name, eight Kuge, five daimyo and fifteen samurai. These were members of the new government, in advance formed by the antisoga coalition.

"These individuals proceeded to the small hall of the Imperial Palace (Kogosu), where the meeting was held in the presence of the emperor, on which the main imperial rescripts were read in advance and kept in the portfolio of KUGE Ivakura: about the restoration of the imperial power, on the abolition of Sögunat, about the establishment of a new government, On the rehabilitation of all KUGE, who were previously subjected to repressions for belonging to the Antisoga Coalition "

At the meeting, sharp disagreements between Goto and Ivakura immediately arose at the meeting on the attitude towards the former sagus of Caek. However, the presence of armed force in the hands of Tobacuha decided the outcome of the struggle between Goto and Ivakura. Keiki was deprived of all political power; He was offered to immediately transfer land possessions and the treasury of Syugunata to the emperor. This caused a decisive blow to Sögunat. However, the finally dominance of Tokugawa's house was broken only in the process of the blown of the bloody civil war, which covered a significant part of the country. The overthrow of Sögunat was the largest success of the revolution of 1868

Thus, the defeat of the troops of Sögunat and the victory of the new government was largely the result of the peasant revolutionary struggle. However, immediately after the victory, the new government began to suppress the peasant movement.

Especially cruelly, the authorities dealt with the inhabitants of the Oki Islands, which were in the possession of Tokugawa. The population of these islands on the eve of the state coup on January 3, 1868 raised the uprising, was driven by representatives of Sögunat and created its local government, which assisted the troops of the central government in the fight against the Tokugava forces.

However, soon after the coup, the government sent its representatives to the islands of its representatives, which were in a large part of the most unworthy officials of Syugunat, which were shortly before that were expelled from the islands as a result of a popular uprising. After a short resistance, the uprising of the inhabitants was brutally suppressed.

Published on May 17, 1868 Decree on the State Device "Satasyo", which is sometimes called the first Constitution of the Maidzi government, provided for the creation instead of the previous Supreme State Authority (Sansenka) of the State Council (Dadzoskan), clothed legislative, executive and judicial authority. This decree was indicated that all responsible posts in the government should be provided with the highest courtestiny and daimyo; Middle and lower positions should be provided to samurai "as a sign of respect for their wisdom."

Decree did not provide for the participation of representatives of other classes in the government. He only pointed out that all those who wish to give the Council to the Government on any issue should be given the opportunity to establish contact with the relevant authorities in the formal manner. Decree has also limited the power of feudal princes: devote them to the right without the consent of the State Council to assign titles, and to check the coin, to take on the service of foreigners and under any circumstances did not allow them to enter into contracts with foreign countries or to enter into an alliance with other feudal princes. These activities were aimed at implementing the main task of the new government-centralization of public administration, the association of the country under the authority of the absolute monarchy.

The prolonged civil war strengthened the danger of an agrarian revolution, the approach of which was felt in the growing peasant movement. Hence the desire of the new government to the early conclusion of the war, even by compromise with representatives of the old regime. The estate solidarity of the entire samuracy also affected.

« Historical meaning The public coup on January 3, 1868 and the civil war following him lies not in the formal restoration of the imperial dynasty, but in the elimination of Sögunat Tokugawa, who was the stronghold of large feudalists, and coming to the power of the lowest nobility, to a large extent reflecting the interests of trading and industrial bourgeoisie and new landowners.

The power change occurred in the conditions of extreme exacerbation of the class struggle, the growth of the national and political identity of the Japanese people, in the conditions of a deep crisis of the entire feudal system, and therefore the new government was forced to pursue the "modernization of the country" policy, i.e. bourgeois reforms.

The overthrow of Sögunat served as the beginning of a period of important political and social transformations that opened the way to establish a capitalist production method in Japan.

The promise to convene in 1890. Parliament that sounded in the imperial decree of October 12, 1881, markedly revived the political situation in the country. The emergence of the first bourgeois political party in Japan refers to 1881. She was named "Dziuto", which means "Liberal Party". In 1898, the imperial government, wisely experienced parliamentary rule, decided to turn Dziuto into a semi-government party. In 1900, the party was renamed Seyiukai ("Association of Political Friends"). Her members could be deputies of parliament, officials of local authorities, heads of commercial chambers, chairmen of joint-stock companies with capital not lower than 50 thousand yen, director of banks whose capital exceeds 100 thousand yen, lawyers, major taxpayers. The patron of the party becomes the largest industrial concern "Mitsui".

The interests of another major concern - "Mitsubishi" - expressed the party of the Ministry of Association ("Party of People's Policy").

In the shortest possible time, political parties were formed - liberal and constitutional reforms. They reflected mainly the interests of landowners, the middle part of the bourgeoisie, little related to government spheres and hoped to achieve at least a small, very temperate liberalization of the existing structure, in which the Government dominated the click of the Principles of Satsuma and Testa. Socialists who created the Eastern Socialist Party with an anarchic bias tried to organize. "Unlike European countries, political parties in Japan were not formed after, but before the appearance of parliament. But even these very timid steps were met by the authorities in the bayonets. "

In 1882, a law was published, limiting the activities of public organizations and obliging political parties to coordinate all his actions with the authorities. Moreover, in March 1882, the party of constitutional reforms of a frankly monarchic sense was formed as a response in March 1882. Nevertheless, in the ranks of the opposition, especially among local branches of the liberal party, radical flows began to strengthen their goal and did not exclude the possibilities of terrorist acts. All this happened against the background of numerous peasant unrest caused by robberies and taxes. The active activities of the left groups frightened the leaders of the liberal party, and in 1884 they decided to samorem. And a year earlier, a batch of constitutional reforms was dissolved. However, it was purely tactical steps. The average layers did not refuse the thought of achieving advantageous for themselves in the state structure. The temporalness of the respite was felt in the government. In 1882, a government mission was sent abroad led by one of the most conservative figures of ITO with hobrums to study the constitutional experience of European countries. After a year and a half, ITO, together with satellites, returned to the homeland of IW full secret from the public began work on the draft Constitution of Japan. For the sample, they were selected the most reaction option - the constitution of Prussia. "But before the project was proposed for consideration by the government and the emperor, it was necessary to carry out some preparatory work to exclude the possibility of at least the slightest radicalization of the planned parliament. Firstly, the liberalism of the electoral Lower Chamber was decided to initially limit the top defined conservatism. " To this end, in 1884, the country was created in the country and aristocratic titles (Prince, Marquis, Count, Viscount and Baron) were established, which were given former Daimos, the court to know and some of the most zealous supporters of the throne. Secondly, the government was reorganized on the European sample. The first Cabinet of Ministers of Japan, headed by ITO with hobrums, consisted of 10 people - premiere and 9 ministers (8 of them were immigrants from Satsuma and Temia). In addition, from Tokyo, the authorities were sent around the six hundred representatives of the opposition. The most radical of them were imprisoned. On the other hand, the preparedness for the cooperation of the former prominent members of the liberal party and the batch of constitutional reforms of Okum Signanobu and Goto Södyziro were overwhelmed, complained by County titles and were invited to work in the government. Preparation of the Maidzi Constitution was completed only by 1888. The project decided not to make a broad discussion, as the opposition was sought, but to consider on the secret council created under the emperor and consisted of 12 representatives of the former feudal aristocracy, mainly from the Principles of Satsumum, Tosu, Tosa And Hidzen. The Secret Council was headed by the same ITO of the hobrum, who refused for this from the post of Prime Minister. About six months, the secret advice behind closed doors was engaged in grinding the text of the Constitution.

Finally in November 1888, she was read by the emperor in the Palace in the presence of members of the government, the Higher Sanborns and Foreign Representatives. And only on February 11, 1889, the text of the Constitution was published. The date for this was not chosen by chance. On February 11, Japan noted Kigancialsetsu - a memorable, but very conventional date of the Edema for the throne in 660 BC. Legendary Emperor Dzimm. The very emergence of the Constitution in Japan, which provided for the opening of the parliament, of course, can be considered as an event almost revolutionary. Although under the clue it turned out that if the emperor came with his rights in favor of the people, then only the smallest. The empires of the emperor was proclaimed sacred and inviolable, which, besides the unlimited rights of the head of state and the Supreme Commander. He belonged to the whole full of legislative, executive, judicial and military authorities in the country. But the rights of subjects, such as freedom of speech, correspondence, press, assemblies and unions, were spelled out in the constitution much more modest, with a permanent reservation: "... within the limits established by law" 6. The opportunities that have opened before future parliamentarians were equally cut. They could come to meetings not at their own discretion, but only on the command of the emperor. The emperor appointed the presidential minister (premiere) and on his representation of all other ministers. The Cabinet of Ministers was responsible only before the emperor. He could not blame for any distinction, since the latter was not provided for by the Constitution, nor the resignation of individual ministers, since the legislation did not provide for the collegial responsibility of ministers, nor the rejection of the budget parliament, since the Constitution has authorized the application of the previous year's budget.

Legislative authorities belonged to the emperor in conjunction with parliament. The laws adopted by the Parliament could not be made public and adopted for execution without the imperial statement and signature, and without the sanction of the Secret Council. In the intervals between the sessions of the Parliament, the emperor could produce decrees that have the power of the law. The emperor convened parliament and closed him, transferred the timing of parliamentary meetings, could dissolve the ward of deputies. The emperor also had the right to amnesty, pardon, mitigating punishment and recovery in rights. The Constitution did not abolish the activities of the deliberative bodies under the emperor. These include: "The Secret Council", "Genro" - the unconstitutional deliberative body under the emperor; Ministry of the Imperial Court; The Council of Marshals and Admirals and others. The Secret Council was transferred to consider the most important public affairs. The government was consulted with him on all important policy issues; It proceeds from the approval of the imperial decrees of appointments; He had the right to interpret the Constitution.

The Constitution of 1889 laid the state-legal foundations of the country's capitalist development. However, in the future, the development of Japan follows the path of the militarization of the state. The positions of the military were very strong in unconstitutional institutions - the Secret Council and Henro. In 1895 The procedure was legally confirmed, on which only the ranks of the highest military and naval command were appointed for posts of the military and naval ministers. Thus, the military received an additional possibility of pressure on the government and parliament. From the 79th year. Hih in. Japan becomes the path of aggressive wars and colonial captures.

The Parliament did not recognize the right to investigate or give assessments of the government's responses to parliamentary requests. The emperor could make a mandatory decrees for any reason without consulting with parliament. By its structure, parliament was defined by two-bearet. The top chamber of the peers consisted of members of the imperial surname, titled aristocracy and financial nobility. Her influence was much higher than at the lower house of representatives. According to the electoral law, the right to choose to the lower chamber was provided with men older than 25 years old who paid at least 15 yen direct tax and lived in their district at least one and a half years. That is, the values \u200b\u200bof sexual, age, property and settling were introduced. This has discovered the tolerance of the electoral urns only for one of each hundred inhabitants of the country.

The Constitution also identified the rights of the Cabinet of Ministers and the Secret Council appointed by the emperor, responsible only before the throne and in no way dependent on parliament. In other words, the autocratic monarchy remained in Japan. "In order to slightly muffle the enthusiasm of the masses generated by the Constitution and the enhanced penetration into the country of Western culture, the emperor made public a rescript on education issues in 1890. The management of schools and other educational institutions was obliged to regularly read the students this document, impregnated with the spirit of nationalism, loyadance towards the emperor, loyalty and respect for the authorities. The idea that the Constitution and Parliament were given to the people of Japan by the grace and progressive will of Emperor Maidzi were given to the Constitution and Parliament. Soon every Japanese knew the text of the rescript by heart. With the next reciprocipter, there were deep bows in front of the portrait of the emperor. And if you suddenly, the duty teacher who was allowed to keep a copy of the rescript is not different as in white front gloves, he was shot down in the text, it was expected inevitable dismissal and opal. "

On July 1, 1890, the first parliamentary elections were held in the country. Despite the existence of various qualities and restrictions, more than half of the 300 elected deputies in the lower chamber belonged to the anti-government opposition - the Liberal Party and the Party of Constitutional Reforms, which were actually recovered by that time, although they did not speak under their previous names. 250 of its permanent and temporary (for a period of 7 years) members were appointed to the Ward of Parres. Between the government and the lower chamber from the very beginning there were tense, even hostile relations. Parliamentarians demanded a decline in taxes, cheapening the government apparatus, reducing government spending. Especially acute collisions arose about the allocations for military needs. The authorities managed to split the Parliamentary Opposition to the authorities, the country was adopted, albeit in a somewhat truncated form. The opposition of these branches of power lasted quite a long time with varying success. That opposition announced the government a vote of distrust, aligning him to retire, the Cabinet of Ministers initiated the dissolution of parliament. However, the opposing parties were unanimous in one point - the need to abolish unequal agreements with Western countries. The case was, of course, not only in the state prestige and the possibility of foreigners by Japanese laws. Low import duties, the ceiling of which was determined again by prisoners during

The Cabinet of Ministers was a few. In the first period of its existence, he consisted of 10 people: Minister President, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Interior, Finance, Military, Maritime, Justice, Enlightenment, Agriculture and Trade, Communications.

Judicial reform.

In the field of domestic innovations, the most important was the reorganization at the European beginnings of the judicial system. By law 1890. Estimated the courts throughout the country. Its territory is divided into 298 districts, in each of which is a local court. The following instances were 49 provincial vessels, 7 appellate courts and a high imperial court, whose competence included consideration of the most important cases, the highest appeal and clarification of laws. The status of the prosecutor's office was specified, its legislation was expanded. The prosecutor's office was naked:

a) leadership preliminary investigation;

b) maintaining accusations in court;

c) protesting sentences and supervision of courts.

In 1890, the Criminal Procedure Code received a new edition.

The judicial investigation was to be based on the principles of publicity, perception, competition. At the beginning of the twentieth century In Japan, the court of jurors was introduced.

Since 1872, representatives of the press began to be allowed in the courts, torture was prohibited in the resolution of civil cases, the estimated differences were formally destroyed, blood revenge was prohibited. In 1874, it is limited, and then torture in criminal proceedings are completely prohibited.

The Law of 1890, in accordance with the Constitution, formally focused on the principle of displaceability and independence of judges, providing the possibility of displacement, lowering the judge in office only in cases of improving him to criminal responsibility or punishment in a disciplinary order. To this end, the law on the disciplinary responsibility of judges was adopted in the same year. The direct pressure levers on judges remained at the Minister of Justice, providing a general administrative supervision of the Japanese justice, which has the right to nominate judges to the highest judicial and administrative posts. To replace the position of the judge, according to the law of 1890, legal knowledge and professional experience was required. The judges became persons who have surrendered the relevant exams and successfully passed the trial service life of the court and the prosecutor's office for three years.

The Law of 1890 also envisaged the creation of a Supreme Public Department of Prosecutor's Office with the state of local prosecutors, obeying the strict subordination. The prosecutors were presented to the same qualification requirements as to the judges, they also covered the control of the Minister of Justice, which belonged to the right to give instructions to prosecutors in one way or another court cases.

In 1893, a law on the bar was adopted. Lawyers began to participate in the work of the court. The lawyer was under tight control of both the Minister of Justice and the prosecutor's office. The lawyers also dropped under the jurisdiction of disciplinary vessels. The right to attract them to disciplinary responsibility belonged to the prosecutors. Despite all these innovations, the "law enforcement" system of Japan remained a repressive appendage of imperial power for a long time.

Agrarian transformations

The value of the agricultural transformations carried out in the first years of Meiji period is extremely large. They had a comprehensive impact on the subsequent development of the entire Japanese society. The reform of the agrarian relations are primarily associated with such events of the government as the cancellation of the feudal dependence of the peasants, feudal property to the Earth, the introduction of freedom of choice of cultivated cultures and, finally, the reform of the taxable tax. In combination with a change in the class character of power (although not radical), one of these transformations is enough to recognize the events of Maidi by the bourgeois revolution.

"The implementation of these measures has led to the approval of private ownership of land with the right of its purchase and sale, which has expanded the possibility of mobilizing the Earth. Cancellation of feudal property and feudal contesions were the legal basis for the removal of land rent, the former main income of the ruling class, demanded the establishment of a new legal system that corresponded to the capitalist method of operation. The main source of creating material values \u200b\u200bin the state was agricultural production, and this attached to agrarian legislation a special meaning. "

The legal basis of the new agricultural relationship was given a reform of the taxable tax.

The immediate cause of the introduction of a pavement tax was the need for the new government in income sources to secure the state budget. The feudal Renta tax in the existing first form was liquidated together with the feudal right. The only possible stable source of income for state needs could be only a margin tax. However, for its introduction, it was necessary to legally accurate determination of ownership of all land. Moreover, we can only go about private property.

"At the same time, there were two important questions among others: about the design of land ownership of land and the size of the taxable tax. Both of these problems at first were resolved by issuing certificates of land ownership of land (Tikan). This event was very important. Essentially, it fastened the situation in the field of actual land ownership. These time events coincided with events to eliminate the feudal land use system. "

On December 25, 1871, a decree was issued about the abolition of the category of samurai and feudal lands (Buzzi) and land of citizens (Tötzi) on the territory of Tokyo Prefecture, about the extradition of Tikan and about paying a tax tax. Tokyo was elected as an initial point of issuing Tikan. In January 1872, the Ministry of Finance published a provision regarding the issuance of Tikan to these land in the Tokyo Prefecture and paying from them a tax tax. In the same month, a disposal regarding the dissemination of this provision for all other prefectures was published. On February 15, 1872, the Decree Dadzokan (Government) was canceled for the prohibition of the purchase and sale of the land treated.

For more than six months, by July 1872, the issuance of Tikan was completed. Tikan steel for a while the only testimony of land ownership. Documents for the ownership of land were issued primarily to "new landowners" ("Sindzunashi" or simply "jinsey"). Tikan received the one who was able to prove that he was the actual owner of the Earth. In other words, those whom the peasants surrendered their land into the mortgage, turned out to be the owners of the Earth, and the peasants laid down the land turned into its tenants. In addition, and before the reform, various transactions were made on the purchase and sale of land, and documents certified by these transactions served as evidence of recognition of ownership of it. There were other forms of alienation of the peasant land, which turned into a leased land.

In April 1873, a provision on the reform of the draft tax was published, which was acquired by the force of the law (Tiso Kayesi Dzerei). In accordance with the Standard Tax Reform Regulations, important changes were introduced not only to the marriage tax itself (i.e. in the existing rental tax), but also in the entire system of exploitation of the peasantry. The land taxation was subject to land for which Tikan was issued. Unlike the former taxation, which was produced from the volume of rice crop, the amount of tax was determined in accordance with the price of the Earth.

In the course of the reform of the pavement tax, cadastral books were drawn up, which were made by the names of landowners, the quality and price of their land.

Starting from 1873, a nationwide survey of land and determining their price was carried out. The whole land was divided into 100 million sections. Each owner as a rule belonged to several sites. A more or less successful attempt was made to conduct this examination for a single technique. However, the government did not have the necessary means or experience in order to hold it at a sufficient level.

The compilation of the cadastre made it possible to establish the prices of all the land available. Earth, in accordance with their quality, were divided into three groups: the highest, medium and lowest. The size of the state casement tax was established depending on the harvest, but from the price of the Earth and was defined equal to 3% of its cost (a local gym was added to this value of 1%). The tax was not to be entered in kind, as it was before, but only money. The new loose tax was approximately 30-35% of the cost of the harvest.

During the reform, lands were divided into private and state. Before the reform, due to the established practice, the peasants of the whole community used the princely meadows and forests. In the course of the reform, a significant part of these land was recognized as the property of a state or the imperial house, which led to the fact that many peasants lost any opportunity to use them.

Thus, the position of the peasantry as a result of the Maidji revolution significantly changed, although it did not better become better than it was.

The class structure of the poreform village was determined by the existence of two basic classes: the class of landowners and the class of peasants. Officially emerged after the first transformations of Maidzi (in fact he arose much earlier) the class of landlords was significantly different from the class of feudalists, which dominated the era of feudalism.

Some of the new landowners came out of the ranks of the top layer of the feudal layer - Daimo, which, although they lost feudal privileges, nevertheless turned out to be the owners of significant monetary amounts. Former Daimos received bonds in 1876 as a result of the capitalization of their rice pensions. Thus, 289 former Daimos became owners of bonds on average 97 thousand yen, 148 KUGE - 14 thousand yen, and representatives of the lower layer of beads got an average of 415 yen per person. Many beads lived these funds, and the former major feudal houses founded banks, invested money in the purchase of land, often increasing their wealth.

The next group of landowners has developed from the former Gosi. Rural samurai (gosi) differed in their origin. These were the names of the Popomethers. They had the right to wear swords. The state of the state fell into the category and those wealthy peasants and merchants who expressed the desire to master the virgin lands. Thus, through the states, the boundaries between the estates also walked. Even before the Revolution of Maidi, Gosi gradually began to play an increasingly significant role in the village; They were often elders or occupied other important rustic posts. In some principalities (for example, Satsuma), the states were small landlords who almost did not participate in the processing of the Earth with their own hands.

"The title of Gosi in some cases complained of military merit or those who had some weight in the village (for example, wealthy peasants). Gosi did not carry military service from Daimo. They did not receive income from the Earth of Sussenes. Gosi usually handled their own land. Their military functions were limited to the defense of their provinces. In some principalities, the states also performed some administrative functions as agents of princely governments. In general, the states were the lower layer of the Samurai class. All the states as a result of Maidzi reforms became landowners, making a significant part of the new landlords. "

A significant part of the landowners amounted to representatives of trade and regional capital, who were still at Tokugawa (especially during the decomposition of feudalism) to acquire in one way or another. Becoming during the years of Maidi legal owners of the Earth, they continued to engage in trade and usury. Some of the landowners lived in the village and led their farms with the help of hired labor. They were thus capitalist elements in the village.

It is necessary to make a significant reservation regarding the use of the term "landowner" in relation to the Japanese conditions. In Japanese, there is no term, fully adequate to the Russian word "landowner". The word "jinsey", which often has been translated as a "landowner", in fact does not quite coincide with the latter in meaning. It is usually used to designate the landowner, passing all or part of its land for rent, regardless of the size of land tenure.

Not all jinsi were landlords. The number of jinsi significantly exceeded the number of landowners, which can be called real landlords, i.e., large or medium-sized landowners surrendering land for rent. The jinusi included a lot of small and smallest landowners who leased their small sections of the Earth, and themselves, engaged in the utilized crafts, did not at all processed the land or handled small bugs. Partially these small landowners handed over the Earth to the wealthy peasants.

The reform of the taxime tax, first of all, changed the position of the tenants. The Tokugawa era existed three main rental types. The first is the usual rent, in which the tenant had no special rights and fully depended on the will feudal. The second form is the "eternal" rental, based on the usual right. In this case, the landwoman could not arbitrarily move the tenant from the ground. Usually, the peasants were possessed by this right, with their own hands who have mastered the virgin land or improving the conduct of reclamation work. One of the varieties of eternal lease was a lease recognized by the Emver landowner after 20 years of use of the land by the Tenant. The third type of rent was renting on the owned land. In addition, there were many different types of lease types combinations that differed depending on the area.

"The government, carrying out reform, conducted a tough policy of separating land owners from tenants and sought to eliminate transitional forms that could create uncertainty in tax collection. The main goal of this branch was to strengthen the position of a new class of landowners. As part of these events, the government eliminated the eternal lease, limiting its term twenty years. If it came about the lands, cleared with peasants (or their ancestors), then this land was supposed to buy or a landowner, or a tenant. All this, naturally, strongly limited the rights of tenants. "

Thus, during these years, the nature of the social structure of the post-stake village was mainly developed. A relatively large landowners became the dominant force in the village, the top layer of which was landlords. The main form of exploitation of the peasantry, which these landowners used, was the passage of land for rent in small producers-peasants. This type of lease was taking a testing nature: the tenant was a landless or small-earth peasant, who rented land in order to maintain his family from the part of the products produced. The rise in prices for rice, observed in some periods, is not enough, which brought the tenant, since the latter was almost separated from the market, and, on the contrary, brought the landsca of the landowner.

The tenant did not pay the tax tax, but paid the rent, as a rule, in kind. The amount of rent on rice fields was 50-60% harvest.

There was a partially new operating system. The purely feudal form of operation in the form of rent-tax was eliminated. The lesrans-landowners who do not pass the land for rent, began to pay a tax tax. It was the main form of their operation through state bodies.

Thus, agricultural transformations carried out in connection with the revolution of 1868 led to noticeable changes that had significance not only for the village, but also had a strong influence on the entire socio-economic structure of the state. Instead of the feudal form of ownership of land, bourgeois property was introduced. During this process, land ownership was deprived of a significant part of the peasantry. A new class of landowners arose in the village - Dzinusi, which combined the use of rewarding methods of the peasantry (leasing land) with the occupation of various kinds of entrepreneurship.

Agricultural transformations gave a strong incentive to the development of the initial accumulation process, primarily by introducing a pavement tax.

Administrative reform

Local government in Japan in the era of the village is quite traditionally for medieval states: Domenal management with a fairly large, but not guaranteed autonomy of rural communities (borough) and the conditional maintenance of land is a servant to know, daime. Local unification is held in the Maidzi Epoch (1868-1912). As a result of the reform of the territorial organization, new administrative-territorial units are created: prefectures (Ken) and, in each prefecture, district (kU). The controlling prefecture was prescribed by the government, and they, in turn, were appointed governing districts. Each district united several traditional rural communities, which the new government did not recognize as carriers of public authorities. Local elites - rural elders - actively resisted innovations, even provoked local riots. The government was forced to revise the territorial organization of the country: on the basis of the three new laws adopted in 1878, the settler principle of territorial division was abolished and restored. Each city and settlement becomes an independent legal entity. The Law on Municipal Meetings of 1880 establishes elected advice and the position of head of the local administration. The head of the administration is elected by the Council, but only after their approval of the managing prefectures. In fact, it is the head of the administration manages to municipal education: it has the right of absolute veto and is responsible for the actions of the municipality before the control prefecture. In the same period, the law creates elected tips in prefectures; Their powers are limited by the authority of the manager, whom the government appoints. Polling law was not universal: only men who paid local taxes possessed the right to elect, and the voting took place in Kuria, depending on the amount of the tax paid, i.e., ultimately, from property. The management system as a whole resembles the Russian Zemstvo system, or local government in Prussia in the same period. Four Codes establishing general rules Local governance (1888-1889) were drawn up with the help of German experts. The new legislation creates a special type of territorial formations - cities (C), to which settlements attributed with the population of more than 30,000 people. At the same time, the Code of Cities prescribes the union of municipalities if they do not cope with the prescribed functions. Such associations occur (by 1890, the number of municipalities is reduced five times), but the former territorial communities retain the elements of independence: they possess property, taxes are injected, etc. The independence of the communities is supported by the fact that in municipal elections, each community votes unanimously: municipal councils consist of representatives of communities, and not from representatives of voters. In the end, the legislator recognizes these formations - Zaisanka - as voluntary associations of citizens.

"Legal regulation of local government in Japan relies on three basic legal traditions: 1) Actually Japanese tradition, which comes from the times of the Middle Ages; 2) legislation and legal principles of Meiji period, developed under the influence of European continental models, mainly German and French; 3) legal norms and principles introduced by the occupying troops in the post-war period and reflecting the influence of Anglo-Saxon law. " Due to the heterogeneity of influences, from a European point of view, the Japanese system of local government seems to be hybrid and internally contradictory. In accordance with the Anglo-Saxon tradition, the status and powers of local authorities are governed by individual laws dedicated to specific plots. At the same time, there is a general law on local autonomy, which determines the foundations of the organization of local authorities. The Japanese Parliament also hosts private laws addressed to a specific territory. The Constitution and legislation recognize the principle of the overall competence of local authorities; At the same time, the detailed regulation of a large amount of mandatory authority reduces this principle for no. A significant role in determining the functions of local authorities and their relations with the state is played by the decisions of the country's Supreme Court, in particular, as part of its authority on the interpretation of the Constitution. Local government in Japan includes two main levels of the territorial organization: municipalities (more than 3,000) and prefectures (47). Administrative units are divided into four main categories: cities with special status, cities (SI), villages (Dze) and villages (Sleep and Sleep and Mura). "The differences between the two latter categories are insignificant, and are rather symbolic nature; The status of the village is assigned to the population by almost automatically solving the representative body of the prefecture, if the population is exceeding a certain threshold. The status of the city is assigned to municipal education (or a group of municipalities, which are united by the decree of the Minister of Internal Affairs, if it meets the following criteria: 1) the population is exceeding 50,000; 2) the central part of the city (central locality) combines more than 60% of the population; 3) less than 40% of the population is employed in agriculture. The status of the city obliges to create some administrative structures (Treasury Center, social assistance services). Municipal authorities are elected, in accordance with the Constitution, direct general elections. " In each municipality, there is a representative body - the Municipal Assembly - and the head of administration elected by the population. In both cases, the term of office is 4 years, the elections are held according to the majority system of the relative majority. Largely large largest meetings (from 12 to 100 people, depending on the population) have a standard set of powers: budget adoption, decision-making on the main issues of own competencies of the municipality. The head of administration alone leads the executive authority, performs the decisions of the Assembly, prescribes and replaces local employees. You can talk about the existence in Japan a typical Scheme Council - a strong mayor, however, the Japanese chapters of administrations have a large amount of authority than most of their American colleagues. Thus, the head of the administration may dissolve the meeting (which, in turn, can send him to resign). The main source of authority of the heads of administrations is the powers that are delegated to them by state authorities. Meetings are not allowed to interfere with the implementation of these powers.

All 47 Japanese prefectures did not change their borders from 1888. 43 prefectures (Ken, for example, Tottori-Ken) have a common status; Almost no different from them on legal position two prefectures (FU), covering the two largest urban agglomerations: Kyoto and Osaka (Kyoto Fu and Osaka Fu; unlike other prefectures, in Fu there are administrative districts). Special status Features of Tokyo and Prefecture (up) Hokkaido. The territory of the Tokyo Prefecture consists of 23 districts (kU), each of which is approaching its status to the city (C). District meetings and heads of administration are elected in the districts. In general, the management of Tokyo is similar to the control of large London. Hokkaido Island is a separate prefecture (Hokkaido-to); However, a significant part of the authority in the field economic Development Selected from elected authorities: they are carried out by the Government Agency for the Development of Hokkaido. Prefectures are managed by elective meetings (from 40 to 120 members) and the elecable population directly managers. The distribution of powers between representative and executive authorities, the period of staying in office, the electoral system fully reproduces the rules established for municipalities. And in municipalities, and in prefectures, many questions can be solved directly by the population by referendum. So, for the referendum on the revocation of the head of the administration (managing) sufficient signatures of one third of the voters. Voters enjoy the right initiative in the field of solutions of local meetings: the meeting is obliged to consider the application and take an appropriate decision if the application for the adoption of any act is signed by 1/50 from the total number of voters. However, in practice, the initiative of the population is rarely used.

An essential role in the local government of Japan is played by territorial entities that exist within municipalities - Zaisanka. In some rural regions, it is just traditional communities who have changed their status but not distinguished on the merits over the centuries. Residents of Dzaisanka, as a rule, elect the headlight, which automatically turns on the municipal administration. In cities, such communities receive the official status of police assistance societies, fire-fighting associations of citizens, etc. Dzaisanka authorities establish their own fees (officially we are talking about voluntary donations and contributions), and municipal authorities often delegate them significant powers.

Military reform

In 1872, a decree was issued on the introduction of universal military service, which undermined samurai monopoly law into military service.

The transformations significantly affected the former privileged estate of the military nobility - samurai. Large feudal landowners - princes received a generous monetary compensation for the refusal of their feudal rights in favor of the emperor, but the position of the ordinary samuracy as a whole worsened. Part of samurai injured in the state apparatus, adding the ranks of officials; In the army, they still constituted the backbone of officers. Some samurai turned into landowners, but a significant part remained without any sustainable source of income and could not adapt to the new terms of the cash economy. It was a restless and vain "Wolnitsa", which did not want to reconcile with the loss of his privileged position.

In the 70s years XIX in. There have been a number of reactionary samurai recesses, the participants of which have sought the restoration of previous feudal orders and, in particular, such special samurai privileges, as the right to wear weapons. The introduction of universal military obligation finally undermined the samurai monopoly on a military affair; A sharp reduction in state pensions paid to samurai caused a special indignation among them. This was joined by dissatisfaction with the "weak", that is, not enough aggressive, in their opinion, the foreign policy of the Japanese government, who did not add any conquering campaigns in the near future, which would give samurai the opportunity to advance and enrich.

Dissatisfied headed Military Minister Saigo Takamori. He sharply criticized the external policies of the government and demanded that Japan "showed himself." Saigo, in particular, insisted on the unleashing of the warriors to conquer Korea. Such aggressive and at the same time, adventurous moods of the samurai opposition were not divided by a majority of ruling circles. The adoption of a frankly aggressive foreign policy on a large scale threatened behind the returned, weak economic and military relations of Japan with dangerous consequences. Therefore, presented in the government to supporters of the military adventure, headed by Saigo, failed to overcome the resistance of white the cautious elements grouped around the okbob Tosimity. Okubbo, like Saigo, belonged to samurai. However, okubo was the leader of the most profound layers of the feudal nobility, all the activities of which were directed to the search for a compromise with the bourgeoisie to carry out a relatively liberal internal political course and the early modernization of Japan.

Factory industry.

"The industrial policy of the Maidzi government was as follows: to put the state control arsenals, cast iron and shipbuilding plants and mines that previously belonged to various clans or Bakufu, then centralize them and bring to a high level of development; At the same time, create other enterprises of strategic importance, such as chemical plants (sulfuric acid plants, glass and cement plants). Only after that the government intended to sell most of these factories a pile of its confidence in financial magnates. However, control over the most important strategic attitudes of enterprises, such as military arsenals, shipbuilding plants and some mining enterprises remained in the hands of the government. "

All mines and mines who previously belonged to the Government of Bakufu and the clan authorities were confiscated and then sold to representatives of those financial circles. who stood close to the government. This government policy was as follows out by one Japanese specialists: "At that time (during the restoration), ten largest mining enterprises, namely, Sado, Mipke, Ikuno, Takasima, Ani, Innai, Kamaisi, Nakakosaka, Okasera and Kosk, were managed the government itself for their fastest development; But after they were introduced into the sling, they were passed into the hands of individuals. Currently, all enterprises of the mining industry, with the exception of several mines and special purpose mines, belong to individuals. "

To increase the performance of these enterprises, the Government attracted the best foreign specialists.

Transportation and communication developed by a rapid pace due to the tireless energy of the leaders of the MEPJI government. The government intently followed the development and activities of transport. The main task of rail transport was the expansion of the domestic market. Although private capital was attracted to the construction of railways, the first railway lines in Japan were built by the Government with a loan in the amount of 913 thousand f. Art. obtained in London. By the end of the century, private capital in railway transport began to prevail over government, but in 1906 all railways Countries other than narrow-chain were nationalized.

"When analyzing this step from a military-political point of view, we should note that railways have always been considered by the government as one of the most powerful funds for the unification of the country, and Maidzi military leaders have never missed the strategic importance of transport. For example, simultaneously with the Law on Railway Construction of 1892, which established the principle of state ownership of railways, the Supervisory Board was created. " This council was called "Tenzudo Kaigi" and consisted of twenty people, among which were several military, and the first chairman of this council, General Kavakas Sokok, was perhaps the most outstanding strategist of that time. As far as military-strategic considerations prevail over the commercial when it comes to railway construction, a discussion unfolded on the construction of the non-Sando railway line, crossing the highly populated terrain. The difficulties and costs associated with the construction of this road seemed so big that the construction plan was temporarily postponed. But, according to a specialist in Japanese railways, Viscount Anoue, "Against this (since. Failure to build this road) made a protest military, which persistently pointed out the strategic advantages of the Noshadendo route. 8. Strategic considerations played a paramount role in the construction of railways, as well as a telephone and telegraphic network.

To illustrate what great attention the government has paid the strategic value of the telegraph and telephone network, it is enough to refer to one or two government documents. For example, due to the initiation of a petition for the transfer of telephone lines to the property to individuals, on August 2, 1872, a proposal was received in Dadzokan (State Council) to reject the application mentioned above. This proposal, in particular, was indicated: "In the West there are countries where private lines exist; However, private lines often represent great inconvenience regarding the preservation of state secrets. In addition, communication plays a big role in our relationships with other countries; Therefore, it is desirable that from this time the existence of private lines is put to an end and that in the future r.su links transferred to the government "9. This proposal was made. Maidzi government soon appreciated the value of the telegraph for keeping of modern war, which is confirmed by the effective use of this means of communication with government troops when suppressing Satsum's rebels in 1877

The inverse procedure of industrialization caused a well-known imbalance in the technical development of Japan. The government from the very beginning paid great attention to the military-strategic sectors of industry, and therefore, in terms of technical terms, these industries soon reached the level of the most "broken Western countries. At first, Arsenals in Nagasaki were under the leadership of the Dutch, shipbuilding and cast iron plants in Ykoska - under the leadership of the French, and other shipbuilding plants - the leadership of the British. These foreign experts taught the Japanese, and over time, Japanese technical capabilities caught up with their foreign teachers. Foreign managers and assistants managers were also used in the textile industry: British specialists - in a spinning factory in Kagoshima, French - at the factory in Tomika N Fukuoka, Swiss and Italian specialists - on the Suskotal Maebashi Factory.

For training engineering techniques, the government founded technical schools with the involvement of foreign teachers, and the most capable Japanese students sent abroad to master the newest technique so that they could replace foreign specialists on returning to their homeland.

Thus, key industries were technically developed, while those industries that did not have a strategic value or did not produce products competing with foreign goods in external or domestic markets remained at a primitive level of development.

"The originality of early Japanese industrialization - state control over industrial entrepreneurship - also affected how the government, maintaining and strengthening control over key industries, was exempted from peripheral or less important enterprises by selling their individuals."

The change in the industrial policies of the government, expressed in the transition from direct control to the patronage, was marked by the publication of the Regulation or Law "On the Transfer of Plants" ("Kodzo Harai-Sage Gaisoku") dated November 5, 1880. In the preamble of this law, the government as follows explains the reasons for the change Your policy:

"Plants created to encourage industry are currently well organized and operate at full capacity; Therefore, the Government refuses its ownership of plants to be managed by the people "10. Although the preamble is also confident that various enterprises created by the government can now be transferred to private hands to operate them in order to profit, but Madukata indicates that many enterprises that were under direct state control were not cost-effective and Even, on the contrary, they could rather become a burden for the treasury than the source of income.

A gradual transition to the hands of private owners of enterprises, mainly, as we will see, not having a lot of Military, gave the government to send all its attention to the improvement of the financial and administrative status of enterprises of the military or strategic industry.

However, it should not be thought that the new policy imposed by the Law on the sale of factories divided the Japanese industry into two sharply distinguished parts - to a group of enterprises of military industries, where government control preserved, and a different group covering all other enterprises that do not have Strategic importance that suddenly proved to all the transformations of free entrepreneurship. There was only a different form of patronage introduced by the Government after 1880

The transfer of some enterprises by patronized financiers gave the government to concentrate on military industries that continued to remain under the same strict government control as before. After the suppression of the Satsum's uprising, the government resolutely became on the path of expanding industry for the production of weapons. Despite the reduction in costs for other state budget items in 1881-1887, during this period there was a sharp increase in military expenditures (by 60%), and for the period from 1881 to 1891, an increase in naval expenses (by 200%).

"The implementation of armament plans required the importation of expensive finished military equipment and semi-finished products. In this area of \u200b\u200bproduction, profit or loss was not taken into account, only strategic considerations were meaning here. However, the huge expansion of the production of weapons stimulated the movement for the economic independence of the Japanese industry. Military Industry Enterprises served as an example for the Japanese heavy industry. "

The policy of preserving strict control over the military industry with the appropriate patronage to other industries is carried out up to the present time and is one of the most distinctive features History of Japanese industrialization. This policy goes on its roots in the period preceding the restoration when feudal princes began to show interest in the acquisition of Western military equipment long before they decided to engage in other types of industrial activities.

Foreign policy

Restoration of Maidi treaties with Western powers, ruined the small and medium-sized manufacturer in Japan, undermined the development of the national economy. Therefore, the slogan of the struggle for the abolition of non-equivance contracts united and know, and commoners, and the government, and the parliamentary opposition. All this happened against the background of reinforced chauvinistic propaganda, called Japan to become "the defender of yellow peoples from the tyranny of white races" 11. Being in fact still in a semi-avasual dependence on the Western powers, the Japanese empire was trying to spread their own impact on Asia's surrounding countries. And the greatest appetites of the Japanese caused neighboring Korea.

Japan has imposed its first bondage contract in 1876. Since then, the Japanese enjoyed almost monopolized rights in the Korean market, not only ousting from the Chinese competitors from there, but also suppressing Korean merchants. "It was a real robbery of Korea, which carried the people of this country to ruin and poverty. Such unceremonious commander caused mass anti-peponian movement. "

In July 1882, an uprising broke out in Seoul. The Japanese had to flee from the city in a panic, but soon they returned accompanied by a squadron of military courts. Under the junction of the guns, the Korea government was forced to pay huge contact and allow the Japanese mission to keep troops in Seoul for his guard. And in December 1884, the Japanese organized a coup in Seoul, leading to the power of their depths.

Frankly colonial policy of Japan could not pass unnoticed in China, which for several centuries was considered to be Syzer Korea. Chinese troops were sent to the peninsula. Then the Japanese diplomats offered Beijing to withdraw and Chinese, and the Japanese troops from Korea and to further send the expeditionary buildings there only by mutual agreement. This idea was recorded in the Tianjin Treaty (April 1885). By signing it, Beijing thus refused his special rights and recognized the equality of his and Japanese positions in Korea. The prospect of the capture of the Korean Peninsula Japan became increasingly obvious. Events began to develop with increasing speed. Taking advantage of the outbreak in 1893 of the peasant uprising, the Japanese immediately sent a detachment detachment to Seoul, and after the guidance of "order" refused to withdraw him. Attempts by China and Korea to apply for promotion to foreign states did not give anything. Western powers were interested in destabilizing the situation in East Asia. Moreover, it was at that moment that England agreed to revise the conditions of an unequal agreement with Japan. The British refused (though, starting only from 1889) from consular jurisdiction and from the autonomy of their settons in Yokohama, Nagasaki and other ports of Japan. The system of low import duties was preserved, but this could no longer ruin the mood of the Japanese government, who finally achieved almost equal position with other powers. Moreover, after England, they refused their exterritics in Japan, Germany, France, Russia.

After receiving, thus recognition in the international arena, Japan began colonial seizures. In July 1894, the Japanese warships were drowned by English transport, transporting Chinese soldiers. Then an unworched offensive was undertaken against the Chinese army group, quartered in Korea. After a series of successful actions against poorly organized Chinese troops, the whole Korea was under the military control of the Japanese. And military actions spread to the territory of China. During the Japanese-Chinese War, 1894-1895 Jinzhou Fortress fell, the Japanese took Port Arthur's naval bases and Weihawi, the fortress Lushunko. Beijing urgently requested a truce. The Japanese put forward quite strict conditions in response, providing for China's refusal from all kinds of rights to Korea, concession in favor of Japan a number of Chinese territories (Liaodo Peninsula, Taiwan, Penghuldao Islands) and a huge monetary case. China's forced consent to these robbing claims was recorded in the Simonosk Treaty (April 1895). However, Japan failed to fully implement these agreements. "Russia, who felt the ever-increasing military threat from Japan," advised "to her to abandon the annexation of the Liaodong Peninsula. To the request of Russia, France and Germany joined. Not finished to confrontation at such a high level, Japan was forced to accept the "Council" of the Great Powers. "

As a result of the victory over Qing China, Japan entered the ranks of the colonial empires. Of the 365 million yen of the Contribution received from China, 20 million was provided to the emperor, 10 million is allocated for education and protection against natural disasters, and 325 million yen went to pay a loan issued to cover military expenditures to an increase in weapons. Moreover, 200 million yen went directly to the needs of the army and fleet. There was no time nominated during the transformations of Maidzi called "Rich Country - Strong Army" 12 turned from slogan into reality.

Granted the Russian-Japanese military confrontation ... to the frontier XX century. Japan approached, economically fixed. National income increased in these years by 3% annually. This is a very good indicator, if we consider that such a tendency remained long enough - from 1885. Such a powerful jerk from feudalism in imperialism Japan was obliged not to external assistance, and purely internal factors - authoritarian nationalism, who managed to mobilize resources in the country and centrally to send them to the needs of the armed state, determination in achieving their goals, tough, cruel social and labor discipline, skillful pumping of workers from the agricultural sector in an industrial, relatively high level of education. A powerful stimulus has become a huge contribution, recovered by the Japanese with a defeated China. Japan's ruling circles took the course to further expand their empire at the expense of neighboring states. They saw the main competitor in this field in Tsarist Russia.

Already in 1896, as part of the preparation of the future military collision with Russia, the Japanese government conducted a large military program a large military program aimed at a sharp increase in the number and combat power of the army and the navy. As much serious preparation was carried out in the diplomatic sphere. "A frank struggle between the world's colonial powers for the most profitable colonies was going on the expanses of the Far East. Alliances arose and disintegrated, the search for the balance of interests. European powers literally pumped into parts exhausted China. Kaiserovskaya Germany captured Jiaozhou Bay in Shandong Province. England - Port Weihawi and Coulot Peninsula, adjacent to Hong Kong. France got the port of Guangzhou. Tsarist Russia seized Port Arthur. At the same time, "spheres of influence and interests" were determined. England fastened the Valley of the Yangtze River, France - Hainan Island and Guangdong Province, Guangxi and Yunnan, Germany - Shandong Province, Russia - Manchuria, Japan - Fujian Province, lying opposite the Taiwan already captured by her. The United States, busy with the struggle for the "Spanish legacy" - Philippines, Guam and Puerto Rico, so the Americans who remained without a certain Chinese put on the work of the "open doors" and tried to enlist the recognition of this principle from other participants of the colonial redistribution. Japan was on a par with other powers, participated in punitive acts and suppressing the uprising of boxers in 1900 and, accordingly, in the share of the next ending. "

But attempts to strengthen their position in China of Japan at that time did not succeed. Mainly due to the opposition of Russia and Germany who did not want to strengthen their competitor to Far East. Anti-Russian sentiments in Japan are strengthened, but not yet finished to open confrontation, she was looking for support from other powers that showed interest in the region. She found such an ally in the face of England, also interested in the weakening of the positions of Tsarist Russia - both in the Far East and Central Asia. In 1902, the Anglo-Japanese Union Agreement was signed, confirming the presence of "special interests" of the British in China, and the Japanese in China and Korea. And London, and Tokyo promised to each other alling assistance, right up to armed assistance, in the event of a war with two or more states. Neither, nor the other party tried to even hide the anti-Russian orientation of the agreement. Support on this path Japan received from America.

Deciding, thus, with allies and opponents, Tokyo sent at the end of July 1903 by the Deposte to St. Petersburg with a proposal to start negotiations. Their goal was to force Russia to recognize the prevailing interests of Japan not only in Korea, but also in Manchuria. Tokyo agreed to take into account the "special interests" of Russians, but only in railway enterprises in the territory of Manchuria. Russia naturally could not agree with such a situation. The inevitability of the Russian-Japanese war became apparent.

On the night of March 8-19, 1904, the Japanese fleet under the command of the vice-admiral of that Heihatyiro suddenly attacked the Russian squadron, which was standing at the Port Arthur Raid. No one was waiting for the attack, and therefore the losses of Russian sailors were very sensitive. Two armadors and one cruiser were disabled. In the morning of the next day, the japanese destroyer was repeated, and again successfully. At the same time, the Japanese tried to capture Russian warships, which came to the Korean port of Self. The Varyag cruiser and the Korean gunboat took an unequal battle, and then flooded with their teams. So literally in two days the balance of naval forces has changed in favor of Japan. And only on February 10, Japan officially announced the war of Russia. Korea hurried to declare his neutrality in the beginning of the conflict. But it did not stop the Japanese army. The troops were planted at Chelpo and Seoul and began promotion to the north. On April 29, the Japanese inflicted the first defeat of the land forces of Russia (Treurechensky fight), crossed the Border River Yala and began to delve into Manchuria. Two other Japanese armies landed north of Port Arthur, isolated it from other Russian forces and in late May was occupied by an unprotected city of far. The siege of Port Arthur began.

This well-protected fortress on the Liaodong Peninsula on the Sushi side was practically not reinforced. But in these unfavorable conditions, the port Arthur garrison successfully reflected the attacks of the Japanese. Under the walls of the sea fortress, the Japanese army lost more than 110 thousand soldiers and officers. The Russian warships were less successfully operated, actually locked in Port Arthur Bay. An attempt to go into the sea and give the battle to the Japanese fleet failed. The battleship "Petropavlovsk", released on April 13, 1904 from the bay under the flag of the commander of the Pacific Fleet Admiral S. Makarov, ran into the mines and went to the bottom. Sailors decided to wait for the arrival of reinforcements from the Baltic. But did not wait. January 2, 1905 Commandant Port Arthur, General Peressel passed the fortress to the Japanese.

Meanwhile, the situation was unfavorable for Russian troops and on the territory of Manchuria. Numerically superior forces of the Japanese defeated by Russians at Liaoyan (August 29 - September 3, 1904), and then under Mukden (March 10, 1905). The last chord in this tragic series of events has become a Tsushim battle. The long-scale transition from the Baltic, the Russian squadron could not have proper resistance to the Japanese fleet and was defeated on May 15.

"I must say that the victory in the war with Russia was given to the Japanese state. Human reserves were exhausted. During the war, 1185 thousand people were mobilized in the army and fleet (about 2% of the country's total). Of these, every fifth was wounded or killed. The total amount of military costs exceeded 1.5 billion yen. The country was in debt to foreign powers. The economy was on the verge of a breakdown. Among the peasants and workers were widely distributed anti-war moods. Further to continue the war, Japan could no longer be. " In the spring of 1905, the representatives of the Japanese government turned to the American President Theodore Roosevelt with a request to organize peace negotiations as an intermediary. The Russian authorities were interested in the negotiations, for whom the severity of military defeats in the Far East was aggravated by revolutionary performances in Moscow and other cities of the country. Peace negotiations began on August 9, 1905 in the American city of Portsmouth. The Russian delegation was headed by Prime Minister S. Witte, Japanese - Minister of Foreign Affairs Koura Dzutaro. On the Table of Negotiating Japan from Russia recognition of their political, economic and military interests in Korea, the transfer of Japan Lyodo Peninsula with the railway Harbin - Port Arthur, concessions of Sakhalin, payments to huge contact, restrictions on the sea forces of Russia in the Far East, the rights for Japanese subjects to catch Fish from the Russian shores. President Roosevelt, interested in further weakening the Russian presence in the Pacific, fully supported the requirements of the Japanese side. However, this pressure was ignored by the Russian delegation. Agreeing with many points of the Japanese program, Witte flatly refused the concession of Sakhalin and the payment of contribution. Koura has telegraphed in Tokyo that negotiations can be interrupted. And this meant the possibility of resuming hostilities. Exhausted war, Japan did not risk. And at the secret meeting of the government, with the participation of the emperor, it was decided to abandon the requirements relating to Sakhalin and Contribution. "But the Americans intervened in the case again. Their Messenger met in St. Petersburg with King Nikolai II to discuss the conditions of a peace treaty. In a conversation, the king dropped the phrase about readiness to give the Japanese southern part of Sakhalin. This immediately became known to the Japanese. Koura made appropriate adjustments to the official Japanese position, and the final text of the Peace Treaty included a clause on the transfer of Japan half of the Sakhalin Island. Inglorious end of the inglorious campaign for Russia. But in Japan, the conditions of the Portsmouth Treaty were found far from satisfaction. Japan as the air was needed by money to correct the economy shaking over the months. Only interest in public debt amounted to 110 million yen, of which 90 million yen accounted for interest on military loans. "Inxicated by the brilliant victories of their generals and admirals, the Japanese waited for the repetition of the" Golden Rain ", shed ten years ago to the country after the victory over China. In print seriously discussed the requirements to join Japan the whole Russian territory east of Baikal. And here - very truncated, from the point of view of the Japanese man in the street, concessions from the defeated Russia! "12. On the day of the signing of the Portsmouth Peace Agreement (August 23, 1905) in Tokyo, and then unrest broke out in other cities of the country. The editors of government newspapers were defeated, police plots. The riots had to suppress armed force. The number of killed and wounded exceeded 2 thousand people. The government was forced to resign. The victory over Russia has opened a new page of her story for Japan. The country of the rising sun has become a major colonial empire. Her international authority has increased dramatically. August 12, even before the signing of the Portsmouth Treaty, the updated Anglo-Japanese Union Agreement was concluded in London, replacing the agreement of 1902 "If the former agreements between London and Tokyo included an item on the" inviolability of Korea ", now England recognized" the prevailing political, military And the economic interests "of Japan in Korea and agreed that Japan" can take such measures of leadership, control and patronage in Korea, what it will consider the relevant and necessary for the protection and development of these interests "13. For its part, Japan willingly supported the claims of England in relation to Tibet, Afghanistan and Persia in the name of "Protection of the Borders of India" .. its international authority has increased significantly. Since then, the country of the rising sun began to be counted to the Great Powers. This manifested itself, first of all, the fact that European countries and the United States in 1905 increased the rank of their official representatives in Japan from the Messenger to the ambassador. "True, such a high international status did not remove acute problems within the country. Without receiving the conference from the defeated Russia, to which so hoped in Tokyo, Japan did not manage to translate its economy on the rails of less considerable peaceful development. The costs of further militarization of the country (up to 40 percent of the budget) have eaten all the means obtained from external and internal loans. The public debt in 1906 reached 2420 million yen. (Yen at that time was equal to the gold ruble). "

According to the Portsmouth Peace Treaty, Russia provided Japan freedom of action in Korea. In November 1905, the Korea was imposed by the Japanese Protectorate. Japanese soldiers surrounded the palace in which a meeting of the Korean government was held, and did not produce ministers until they had their signatures under the Protector Agreement. The first article of the Treaty establishes that "the Japanese government through its ministry in Tokyo will continue to monitor the external relations of Korea and the management of foreign affairs of Korea 14. The Korean Emperor applied for help and support to the US government, but to no avail. Americans not only did not assist Korea, but the first among the great powers were withdrawn from the country of morning freshness (as Koreans called their country) their diplomatic mission, thereby demonstrating the willingness to solve all the problems relating to the peninsula, exclusively through Japanese diplomats. The rest of European countries immediately followed the example of the United States.

In February 1906, the Japanese government established in Seoul, the position of the General Resident, clothed with the broadest powers. The general resident began not only to lead the external affairs of Korea, but also interfered with all internal problems. In terms of the amount of authority, it was the position of the Governor General of the Colony.

In the southern provinces of the country began uprising. The Emperor Korea in June 1907 secretly went to Europe, where at that time the Hague Peace Conference was held, in the hope of gaining international protection. In the punishment, the Japanese government made Emperor Korea renounce the throne in favor of the Crown Prince, and the Korea has been imposed on the new partnership conditions that have been in the scope of Japanese Resident and all the internal affairs of this country.

In August 1907, at the request of the Japanese, the Korean Army was dissolved. All power on the peninsula moved into the hands of the Japanese General Resident. Soon, the Tokyo Guide came to the belief that the further preservation of the visibility of "dvoevsty" in Korea is no longer justified and the time has come to put a point in the colonization of this country. The decision of the Japanese Cabinet of Ministers about the Annexia Korea was taken in July 1909, for which the consent of the Japanese emperor was immediately followed. In pursuance of this plan, the Military Minister of Japan Taratui Skequet was appointed to the position of general resident, which was installed with an iron hand and carried out a planned operation. He introduced additional units of the Military Gendarmerie in Korea, concentrated dozens of warships from the coast of the peninsula. At the same time, almost all Korean newspapers of patriotic sense were closed. On August 16, 1910, negotiations began between General Taratuity and the head of the Korean government. They launched just a week, and on August 22, an annexation agreement was signed, according to which the Korean emperor "completely and for eternal times" was inferior to the Japanese emperor "All the rights of sovereignty for the whole Korea" 15. Korea as an independent, independent state ceased to exist and was turned into a Japanese governor-general.

"A long period of intensive robbery of Korea's national riches has begun. Japan not only ran out food and industrial raw materials from Korea, but also directed hundreds of their immigrants to the peninsula, who captured the best lands, turned local residents in the semi-trunk. Lained lands, earnings and pieces of bread, Koreans ran away from colonialists, with thousands emigrated to other countries - to China, to the Hawaiian Islands, to the Russian Far East.

Immediately after the end of the Russian-Japanese war, the Japanese forced Beijing to give them rental rights to the Liaodan Peninsula with the Port Arthur fortress. At the same time, the expansion of Japanese interests in Manchuria was agreed, which until that time was in the sphere of Russian claims. China has opened a number of new ports for the Japanese residents and residence, provided Japan concession for the construction of the Mukden Railway - Andun, agreed to the creation of a mixed Japanese-Chinese joint-stock company for the operation of the forest concession on the Yal River. Before the war, this concession achieved the royal government. However, further attempts to get to the hands of Manchuria met violent resistance. But not from Russia, as expected, on the part of one of the main allies of Japan - the United States. Americans who have provided substantial support for Japan in the fight against tsarist Russia, counted on their part in the colonial redistribution of China.

In 1907, a Russian-Japanese fishing convention was signed, regulating Japanese fishing in Russian Far Eastern waters. And in 1910, both countries have entered into an agreement in which mutual assistance to enhance each other "friendly assistance to improve their railway lines" in Manchuria, as well as maintain and respect Status Quo in this region. "In America with undisguised irritation, these processes followed these processes. Dislikes to the Japanese not only found a reflection at the official level, but also to largely helped the formation of Antiappon sentiment among the US public. Especially acute, this enmity showed itself on the West Coast of the United States, in California, where emigrants from Japan would have been eagerly seen and quite numerous Japanese maritime countries were formed. There in 1907 rolled a whole series of Japanese pogroms. To somewhat discharge the situation (many politicians of that time were even ambulance outbreaks of the Japanese American War), the governments of the two countries exchanged notes and concluded an agreement in November 1908, which provided for the preservation of Status Quo in the Pacific region and confirmed the principle of "open doors" in China. Although, it must be recognized that the declared fracture for the better neither in relations between Japan and the United States nor in the conditions of the penetration of American capital in China did not happen. There was some cooling in the Japanese-English connections that are consistently friendly until that time. As in the case of the USA, Japan's partners from Misty Albion began to understand that the continuing expansion of Japan to the continent goes further than it thought about the conclusion of the Japanese-British Union, and painfully affects the interests of Great Britain in China. But the English did not hurry the British. In Europe, a complete course was made to make a military confrontation between the countries of the Entente and Germany. In these conditions of your potential ally, the British did not want to repel its potential ally in the Far East. Therefore, all changes to the new text of the Anglo-Japanese agreement (July 1911) were made very carefully, because of which this document was pretty cool and in London, and in Tokyo. The Japanese meanwhile increased their efforts in Manchuria. But if before that time they were limited to economic expansion, then from 1909 the escalation of the military presence of Japan in this region began. The favorable opportunity to build up its military contingents in South Manchuria, Japan saw in the Chinese revolution 1911-1913. Japanese generals demanded open interference in Chinese affairs, justifying this with a negative impact, which allegedly can have a democratic movement in China to the monarchical system in Japan. The Military Ministry of Japan proposed a military agent (attache) of Russia in Tokyo in a detailed plan for joint Russian-Japanese armed intervention in China. But the royal government has declined from this proposal. In July 1912, St. Petersburg visited the Japanese informal mission, which tried to persuade the Russian government somehow delimit the spheres of influence of two states in Manchuria. A secret agreement was achieved on the section "In the Beijing Meridian" - "Special Interests" of Japan were recognized in the eastern part of the inner Mongolia, and in Western - the interests of Russia. But in the same summer, the emperor of Japan Mutshito died, the Emperor of Japan Mutshito died, and the attention of the Japanese military for some time was switched inside the country where the fierce struggle for state posts began. "16

The new Cabinet of Ministers of Japan, who came to power, decided to temporarily refrain from military intervention in China. Emperor Oksihito climbed the throne. So the Maidzi Epoch era and the era of Tais began to be completed.

Conclusion

The era of industrial development in Japan almost completely coincided with the time of the transition to large corporate capitalism. This was facilitated by the purposeful policy of the absolutist state, the exercise of broad economic and military functions. In order to overcome the technical and military labaling from advanced capitalist states, the Japanese state not only stimulated the development of private entrepreneurship, but also actively participated in industrial construction, widely subsidized at the expense of tax revenues. The state treasury was funded by the construction of a large number of military enterprises, railways, etc. Industrial construction was managed in 1870, the Ministry of Industry.

The splicing of banking and industrial capital, the relatively early education of Japanese monopolies was accelerated by subsequent transfer of banking homes, such as Mitsui, Sumito and others, industrial enterprises owned by the state. There are monopolistic concerns ("Dzaibatsu"), which are a number of related firms controlled by one parent company or a group of financiers.

The Japanese state, however, canning the feudal remnants in all spheres of life of the Japanese society, has long been inferior at the level of development of Europe and the United States. In the social area there were not only a semi-feudal landfill land ownership, the barking operation of tenant peasants, the dominance of Roshovshchikov, class differences, but also the most severe forms of operation by industrial workers in the village. In the political region, feudal remnants were expressed in the absolutist nature of the Japanese monarchy with the prevailing role of landowners in the ruling landlord-bourgeois block, which remained up to the First World War.

Creating a large modern army and navy It became a special concern for the new Japanese imperial government from the first days of its existence. This was facilitated by the important role played by the state of influential militaristic cliques, the discontent of hundreds of thousands of samurai, who were not deeds who were dedicated to their former feudal privileges.

Despite the briefness and artificiality of the Parliamentary Cabinet, which includes representatives of one pro-government party, the very fact of its creation became an important political event, forced military-bureaucratic circles to take a fresh look at the role of political parties and parliament itself. In 1890, in Japan, the electoral law reform was carried out, which expanded the number of voters. So began slow, inconsistent (accompanied, for example, by the expansion of the authority of the Secret Council at the expense of the parliament), the processing of an absolute monarchy into limited, dualistic, which was interrupted by subsequent preparation A " big War»And the establishment of the monarch-fascist regime in Japan.

The circumstances that caused Maidi's economic policy can be formulated as follows: First, the lack of capital accumulation has created the need for a state-owned economy initiative and contributed to the concentration of capital and economic power and the hands of the financial oligarchy. Even after state-owned enterprises were partially transferred to private entrepreneurs, the government not only did not stop issuing a subsidy, but also to a large extent strengthened financial assistance to entrepreneurs. This policy was partly summoned by the system of external contracts, since after the first trading agreement of 1858. Very low rates were established, which were even more reduced according to the Tariff Convention 1866. Only in 1899, Japan has achieved a tariff autonomy. Three assistance to the overall revision of the contract system ; But the former contracts have lost its strength in 1910.

Secondly, the military importance of industrialization due to international and internal regulations contributed to the fact that a number of industries that are closely related to defense, even so far is under strict state supervision.

And finally, the policy of transmitting some industries by a narrow circle of large banking houses strengthened their position, as a result of which they continue to dominate in the Japanese industry until the present.

In technical development in Japan, two trends are clearly performed in the period of industrialization. First, there is an increase in those sectors of the national economy, which are more closely related to military enterprises, engineering, shipbuilding, mining, railways, etc., where the state carried out strict control, based on the support of financial houses, which used the government's confidence . These industry industries, the most highly developed technical terms and created according to the latest Western samples, were proudly bureaucracy, which. Anvertedly faced them even after a significant part of the enterprises was transferred to private entrepreneurs. Secondly, we see the development of the "abandoned" industries that produce typically Japanese products for both internal and foreign markets.

Negative, as he was of great importance for the further development of the state and the formation of it on the capitalist path of development. Chapter II. The history of the first constitutions of Asian states §1. The Japanese liberal opposition in the struggle for establishing a constitutional regime after the "Mayiji restoration" is becoming increasingly relevant to create a political structure, and in principle ...

Associated with the unrest of peasants; secondly, civil war in 1863 - 1867; Third, the violent "opening" of the country and the beginning of the penetration of foreign capital in Japan; In the fourth, the Revolution of Meiji, which entailed the change of ruling circles, and the emperor comes to change Tokugawa. End of the XVII - the beginning of the XVIII centuries was noted by the deterioration of the general economic situation in ...

In January 1868, political power in the country moved to the Emperor Mutsuchito, the motto of the board of which was the concept of "Maidi" ("Light Board") (since 1868, the chores on the devices of the rule of emperors were introduced in Japan).

In 1870-1880, the Japanese government begins to modernize all areas of socio-economic and political life. Western states serve as a role model. The reforms were ideologically substantiated as the "restoration" of the emperor power and return to the original Japanese values.

As a result of "Maidzi Updates", Japan turned into a westernized state capable of competing with Western powers. The administrative and territorial reform finally abolished the principality and introduced the prefectural division of the modern sample. As part of the agricultural reform, a significant part of the land was transferred to private hands. The state apparatus was reformed on the Western model; In 1885, a government led by the Prime Minister was formed. Significant transformations affected the area of \u200b\u200bfinancial and credit relations, education, army, transport infrastructure, etc. spheres.

In 1889, the first Constitution of Japan was adopted, which became the logical outcome of the reforms carried out. Despite the formal division of the three branches of the government, the recognition of the rights and freedoms of citizens, the Constitution enshrined the actually unlimited power of the emperor ("Living God"). In practice, the country was ruled by the grouping of advisers to the emperor Ganro, which, until the mid-1920s, focused all the levers of power in their hands.

From the mid-1880s, political parties began to be formed, in 1890 the universal elections were held for the first time in the lower chamber of parliament.

In the late XIX - early XX century, expansionist sentiments began to grow actively. First between Japan and China, later between Japan and Russia begins rivalry for the establishment of control over Manchuria and the Korean Peninsula. In the course of a successful war with China (1894-1895) and with Russia (1904-1905), Japanese expansion to the continent is carried out. In November 1905, Japan establishes a protectorate over Korea. In August 1910, Korea was completely annexed and turned into a colony. Expansion to China was originally economical.

The main outcome of the Mayiji period was the yield of Japan from international isolation and turning it into the world colonial power. At the same time, widespread borrowing of Western achievements and active industrial development did not destroy the national identity of Japan.

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countries of the East

Topic 23: "The reform of the Maidzi era in Japan"

1. Entry. _________________________________________3 - 5.

2. The socio-political situation on the eve of the coup,

his prerequisites ______________________________________________________________5 - 8

Political course

Emperor Maidi ___________________________________8 - 10

4. Administrative and socio-legal reforms of Maji

1870-1880 _________________________________________10 - 13.

5. Public Administration Reforms _____________________13 - 14

6. Education of political parties _________________________15 - 17

7. Conclusion. ________________________________________17 - 19.

8. Literature: ________________________________________ 19

1. Entry.

Epoch Maidza (Yap. 明治時代 maidji Dzidai. ) - The period in Japan's history from October 23, 1868 to July 30, 1912, when the emperor was Mutsuchito. Emperor Mutsukhito (睦仁 ) I took the name of Meiji, which means "Enlightened Government" (MEI明 \u003d light, knowledge; Ji. 治 \u003d Government). And indeed, this period was marked by the refusal of Japan from self-insulation and the formation of it as a global power.

In 1866 -1869, the leaders of the principalities of Satsuma and Temia managed to overthrow the power of Sögunat Tokugawa and restore the imperial board. As a result of these events, a feudal structure was destroyed, and Japan was destroyed, and Japan got on the capitalist path of development.

In the end XIX. The centuries arose a Dzaibatu, specific banking and industrial associations, which constailed the basis of the country's economic relics.

The Maidzi government conducted expansionist policies:

Japanese - Chinese War 1894 - 1895

Annexia Taiwan (1895)

Russian - Japanese War (1904 - 1905)

Annexia Korea (1905)

In 1867-68, Era Tokugawa ended with the restoration of Maidi. Emperor Maidzi left Kyoto and moved to the new capital - in Tokyo, his power was restored. The political force moved from Tokugawa Sögunat in the hands of a small grouping of noble samurai. Hovy Japan decided to catch up with the West in economic and military senses. Cool reforms went throughout the country. The Hoove Government dreamed of making Japan a democratic country with universal equality. The boundaries between social classes introduced by Tokugawa Sigunat were erased. The truth of Samurai was unhappy with this reform, because they lost all their privileges. The reforms also included the introduction of human rights, for example, freedom of religion in 1873. For the sake of stabilization of the new government, all the former feudal daimyo had to return all their lands to the emperor. This was done by 1870, and then followed the redistribution of countries in prefectures. The education system was reformed first in French, and then on the German type. Among these reforms were the introduction of compulsory learning. Approximately after 20-30 years of such intensive swimming, the government listened to conservatives and nationalists: the principles of Confucianism and Sintoism, including the cult of the emperor, were introduced into the educational institutions. Growth in the military direction in the era of European nationalism had a high priority for Japan. Like other Asian states, Japan forced to sign unfavorable agreements by force. Universal military service was introduced, the new army was built according to Prussian, and the fleet was built by the type of British fleet. For a faster conversion of Japan from an agricultural country to industrial Many Japanese students were sent to the West to study science and languages. Also in Japan foreign teachers were invited. A lot of money was invested in the development of transport and means of communication. The government supported the development of business and industry, especially large Zaibatsi companies. Until World War II, the light industry grew faster than heavy. The working conditions in the factories were bad, and the liberal and socialist movements appeared soon, reaching Genro to the ruling group. Japan received its first constitution. In 1889, parliament appeared, but the emperor retained his independence: he stood at the head of the army, fleet, executive and legislative power. And the Ganro was still forces and opportunities, and Emperor Maidzi agreed with most of their actions. Political parties have not yet had sufficient influence in the first place due to conflicts between their members. Cofluccot between China and Japan in relation to Korea led to the Japanese War in 1894-95. The Japanese won and captured Taiwan, but under the influence of West were forced to return other territories in China. These actions pushed the Japanese army and the fleet to speed up re-equipment. The one conflict of interest in China and Manchuria, this time with Russia, led to the Russian-Japanese war in 1904-05. Japan also won this war, while won some territories and international respect. Later, Japan strengthened his influence on Korea and joined it in 1910. In Japan, these military successes led to an unprecedented rise in nationalism, and other Asian countries followed Japan in improving national pride. In 1912, Emperor Maidzi died, and the era of the ruling group of Genro was over.

2. Public and political situation on the eve of the coup, his prerequisites

From 1600 to 1867 The Edo era lasted, referred to as the title of the city, where the permanent residence of Sayyatyatoogunov was established from 1603 before joining the throne in 1868 Emperor Maidi.

The public system of the EDO era can be considered consisting of the following segments of the population: CUE (courtie to know), letter (warriors), Chonin (citizens) and farmers. Courtful to know the highest social situation, but little had and political importance and economic influence. The warriors, on the contrary, owned a very real force and enjoyed the enormous influence in the affairs of political and in matters of economic. Relying on Bakufu, its central body, two hundred seventy diver, or feudal nobles, with their families were divided into the whole country with labbed estates, or aeodes, and manage them with the help of vassals, or subordinates. Under the control of this military class were citizens, engaged in trading and crafts, and farmers cultivated land. Thus, a feudal system was introduced in Japan.

In Japanese society for the first half of the XIX century. There were new phenomena associated with the development of cities and merchants as a new social layer. Excessive estate restrictions, tax burden caused the growth of public discontent. Almost permanent steel peasant unrest in the principalities, which were collected under their banners and numerous declacial samurai. Between the principality of the South and the North, the differences related to different levels of social and economic modernization were distinguished. It was interdepended with the design of the opposition of the southern clans and the princes of the princes of the segunate regime. Partial attempt to overcome the crisis of the reforms of the TEMPO period (1830-1843): Reduced by monopolies of prices (dissolution in December 1841 by monopoly shopping corporations and guilds, the abolition of interest on samurai debts from rice traders), the transfer of land not processed by peasants in the time of the uprising, owners of the places; Tax, administrative reforms were also held, reforms to improve the morals (prohibition of festive processions, luxurious decoration of houses, tobacco smoking, etc.),

In the rise of the socio-political crisis in Japan, the middle of the XIX century played a completely special role to play the external factor: relations with European powers and the United States and government policies about these ties. From 1639 to all Europeans, with the exception of the Dutch, it is forbidden to visit Japan. In the only port in the country - Nagasaki - Dutch, as well as Chinese and Korean ships, was allowed twice a year. The exception for the Dutch was made for help in suppressing the rising peasants, burdened with too high taxes, on the Simabara Peninsula. In addition, laws that prohibited Japanese citizens to travel abroad, and to the Portuguese to remain in Japan. All the threads connecting Japan with the Western world were cut off, except the only surviving - Dutch. However, any activity of the Dutch was under close attention. Tokugava Mode In recent years of its existence, the ban was famous for all studies conducted by the Dutch, excluding the area of \u200b\u200bmedicine. In 1839, Sögun Tokugawa Jeiessi issues a decree on rigid measures against scientists studying Western civilization and science and opposing the continuation of the country's insulation from foreign influence. Professionation of Christianity, the activities of missionaries were prohibited.

The increase in the colonial expansion of the United States, other Western powers in the Far East led in 184-1858. For the compulsory "opening" of Japan for maritime trade and commercial activities of foreigners: January 26 (February 7), 1855 signed a treatise on trade between Russia and Japan; In 1858, trade agreements with five countries were concluded: the United States (June 29), the Netherlands, the United Kingdom (August 26), France (October 9), for which 4 ports were opened for trading: Kanagawa (now Iokohama), Nagasaki (about. Kyushu ), Niigata and Hego (now Kobe), for foreigners the principles of free trade were approved, the right of exterritoria and consular jurisdiction, Japan received low customs duties.

It was at this time that the political opinion of the nation was dramatically divided into two camps: those who welcomed the opening of the ports, and those who defended the policies of isolation. It happened that the monarchical aspirations merged with a sense of xenophobia, and more enthusiastic and bold adherents of this direction of political thought declared this AI Naosuke (Eastern Bakufu, a higher official, rank below Syogun) in such a frantic form that he was arrested and pursued, So far, in the end, was not killed by them. This tragic case was a signal to the rapid and serious decline in the prestige of the Syogunate; And although the Imperial Dvor gave Bakufu Decree on the transformation, however it was too weak to restore the former power. Then the monarchists openly and boldly began to demand the overthrow of Syogunat. The whole country was covered by excitement.

In addition, it is necessary to take into account the ideological factor, a certain centuries-old history of the Japanese nation: the prospect for Bakufu was irreparable due to the constant growth of trends or schools that introduced respect to the imperial house. The reverence of the imperial surname is the highest essence of Japanese views on the relationship of subjects to the sovereign. "... As a study of Japanese history, ranging from her primary source, quickly moved forward, people understood themselves to what fortune time it rises and how unshakable prerogatives of the Imperial House. Conscious of his true attitude towards the emperor and his sacred duty to him, they were convinced that the military class management was illegal in Japan ... ". History of Japan. Nakamura Kooy. (As part of the book "History of Japan") - M., .2002.

Against the background of the discoloration supporting the flow of forces, the activation of reformers, the desires of the restoration of the reign of emperors, including among the lower estates, increased the political importance of the imperial courtyard, in particular the court aristocracy and officials.

3. Military-political coup 1867

Political course of Emperor Maidi

In August 1863, the largest clans of Satsuma, Testa and Tosa introduced in the capital of Kyoto troops, making a coup. However, the problems of the implementation of the imperial power arose, since the real government was in the hands of Bakufu. Aristocratic contradictions, the strengthening of the concentrations led to the Civil War (1863 - 1867). By July, 1866, the coalition of the Principality of Satsuma, Tsu, Tosa and Hijdzen against the Government of Sögunat Tokugawa was formed with the financial support of Mitsui and other financial homes. At the end of 1866, the emperor Komey died, the authorities nominally moved to the Nomov Monarch Moachito, which took the Japanese tradition, the new name of Maidi ("Enlightened Board"). The interests of the courtiers and samurai officials who demanding complete political reform and return to the historical and mythological monarchy prevailed in the Antisegun Coalition. Based on the military detachments of opposition clans, reformers rebel demanded from Segun to return the power to the emperor, annuling the powers of the Council of Regents and other fundamental institutes for the previous orders of order. On October 14, 1967, Segun Keiky announced the addition of the powers of the segun. Political coup was supplemented by Palace: The meeting of Kuge and the officials of December 8-9 developed the principles of a new state order. These principles were legalized in the Imperial Manifesto on December 9, 1867, according to which:

1. The return of the segun power was approved;

2. The posts of Regents, the Chief Counselor and the Bakufu Institute are abolished;

3. A new political course was proclaimed: "Based on the principles established by Emperor Dzimmu in the formation of our country, all the people, civil and military, higher and lower, will participate in public discussion, everyone should share the joy and sore life."

However, the real power of the segun in North and Central Japan was not shaken. Based on his own army, Segun launched another civil war, which in May 1686 covered three quarters of the country. The war ended in the full victory of the imperial forces and the full elimination of the Segunate Institute. With his fall, the entire multi-trifle state-administrative and military system of the country was destroyed.

On April 6, 1868, Emperor Maidzi announced the "abandoned charter of five public principles", which determined the main directions of the foreign and domestic policy of the country of the second half of the XIX century:

"one. We will convene meetings and manage the people, believing with public opinion.

2. People of higher and lower classes, without distinction, will be unanimous in all enterprises.

3. The handling of civil and military ranks will be such that they will be able to fulfill their duties without experiencing non-food.

4. The talked methods and customs will be destroyed, and the nation will go on the great path of the sky and the Earth.

5. Cognition will be borrowed from all nations of the world, and the empire will achieve the highest degree of heyday. "

As a result of the Maidi coup in Japan, the absolute monarchy was established and prospects were opened for the early completion of the country's centralization. However, the characteristics of the time predetermined the growth of the influence of anti-refortional social forces and reforming officials. This made the era of Maidi a period of rapid political modernization of the state system and the formation of a new legal manag.

4. Administrative and socio-legal reforms of Maidi 1870-1880.

The drop in the Tokugawa regime lies led a number of reforms, the purpose of which was to create favorable political and economic conditions for the development of Japan on the Western European model.

The first serious blow to the feudal system and the privileges of the samuraiism was that the imperial government forced the daime to refuse their feudal rights in the management of clans. In 1869, the so-called voluntary return of the country and the people of Emperor - Hanseki-Hawkan occurred. The daime was first left at the head of their former possessions as hereditary governors (Tihanzi), but after the complete destruction of Japan's division at the principality of the princes was completely removed from the Affairs of the Office. Instead of the principalities, a new administrative and territorial division of 72 ken (prefectures) and 3 FU (metropolitan districts) were introduced. The implementation of the supreme power in the prefectures began to enter into competence of government officials. In 1878, all-class self-government was established in urban and rural districts in the form of united meetings, participation in which was determined by high property valuable.

In 1872, a complex and strict class division adopted in the Tokugava Japan was canceled. The entire population of the country (not counting the imperial surname - Kodkoku) began to share for three estates: Gadzzu, formed from representatives of the court (KUGE) and military nobility; Szzoku - the former military service of the nobility (letter) and Hamin - a simple people (peasants, citizens, etc.). All estates were formally equalized in rights. The peasants and the townspeople received the right to be surname.

In addition to the three main classes, they received the rights and Japanese Paria, which began to be called Sinheimin, i.e. New Hamin (or Burakumin - residents of special settlements - Burak). They were also allowed to have the surname, they became formally equal members of society.

Parallel to the current-legal transformations, the government conducted an agrarian reform. Bans for sale and buy land, existing since 1643, were canceled; The land survey was carried out, during which the owners began to issue special certificates (Tikan) on land rights. Due to this, a significant mass of landowners who had previously used land on vassal damages were acquired by real ownership; It also affected the small self-leasers. Instead of traditional rice solders, monetary pensions were introduced to samurai in 1876, which deprived them of a significant part of the income. A single loyal tax was established, which was 3% of the value of the Earth.

In 1872, the reform was followed in the army. Japan's armed forces were created on the basis of the principle of universal military service using the experience of organizing impact detachments from the people, the so-called Nohai and Kihetai, who fought on the side of the antisoga coalition. Despite the fact that all officer posts enshrined the nobility, the former samurai perceived the creation of a discovered army as a direct infringement of their privileged position.

Essentially, the creation of a regular army in Japan, which included peasants and townspeople, and led to a formal cessation of the existence of a samurai as a special military estate. The dissatisfaction of the samuracy, incited by his reaction part, was increasing due to the ultralsity of a significant number of representatives of the former warriors, the capitalization of pensions (replacement of lifelong payments of one-time state compensation, half of which accounted for interest on the government issued by the government), the abolition of the right to wees, etc. Since 1876, the weapon was allowed to wear only persons serving in the army, fleet, as well as a policeman.

In the first years after the elimination of Sögunata in Japan, the government was created by creating a combat-ready army organized by the European sample. Command positions in the imperial army were enshrined exclusively for samurai, especially with the representatives of Clans in the army (in the army) and Satsuma (in a fleet). This preferred samurai layer (about 40 thousand), strengthened in the state apparatus (mainly in the army), turned out to be closely connected with the Japanese monarchy as opposed to the samurai opposition - those samurai that could not adapt to new conditions and left the previous privileged position on the side anti-government groups.

Many samurai walked to serve as a police, and they did not consider this service at all. The population who knew that the police consists in the overwhelming majority from Samurai, continued on tradition to treat the police almost the same as in the pre-reform Japan to the ruling class of warriors. Thus, in the era of Maidzi, the Japanese police were as it were for a "class organization."

Together with samurai-officers in newly created armed forces Many features were introduced inherent in the once soldiers of feudal samurai friends. It was basically a heritage of ideological character.

The ideological processing of the soldier of the new army was based on the moral and ethical code of samurai - Bucidido, somewhat modified in accordance with the spirit of time. If earlier for a samurai, Bouusido, first of all, there were only the interests of Daimo and the clan, then from now on, Moral Warrior became the "Japanese National Spirit", which brought up love for the emperor and Japan. The Maidzi Imperial Army soldiers were to develop the emperor decree from 1884 to develop primarily "respect for loyalty and the execution of debt", as well as to experience complete contempt for death. After the issue of the decree, a special order was given, prescribing to read the items of this rescript aloud in front of the troops every Sunday so that the soldiers could learn him by heart and guide them everyday.

The impetus for the accelerated capitalization of the economy was the financial and monetary reform. After the unification of the monetary signs in 1869 and the simplification of taxes was introduced a single national coin - the yen with a decimal unit. Before the country legally addressed 1694 types of monetary signs. In 1872, the State Bank was organized, and in 1876 - the first private bank of the merchant house of Mitsui. Thanks to the special state protectionism established by law and almost regular budget subsidies, these houses began to turn into the largest corporations not only economic, but also political importance.

5. Public Administration Reforms

Nominally state power fully belonged to the emperor. His status and restored rights were recorded in a special law on the Imperial House (1869) by law, the law was established by the strict order of the Prepolyasing in the family of the monarch (from the father for the elder), the obligation of the coronation procedure, new conditions of the majority (18 years) were determined. The property of the imperial surname was proclaimed inheritance and inalienable. The Imperial Family Council was established to manage the affairs of the imperial home. The state powers of the monarch in law were not reflected. In many ways, because after the restoration, the real completeness of the authorities passed to the aristocratic government, which was enshrined by several political (constitutional agreements). The new central imperial government was established during the restoration itself on the Chinese sample VII century. The government - Sansseku headed the prime minister (Sosai). Organizationally Sansseku was a union of the dignitaries of two more levels: 10 public ministers (Haji) and 20 state advisers (Seenio).

On May 17, 1868, the Government was reorganized at a special decree on the state reorganization - Seitas. Sanseku was abolished and the State Council (Dadzekan) became the principal authority. He was considered the highest legislative, governmental and judicial institution of the empire. The composition was determined by the emperor from the Higher Sanovnikov and Kuge, the tops of samurai officials. Later, the Council created departments: on the deck of religion (in 1870, the Decree of Emperor Maidzi appeared to proclaim the Sintoism of the Great Religion and the basis of national unity), finance, military, foreign and justice. In 1871, the State Council was once again reorganized, divided into three departments (Central, right and left chamber): the main power focused on the central chamber.

In socio-political attitudes, the restoration was marked by the unconditional domination of the nobility (samurai estate). By 1871, the government apparatus of all levels consisted of 89% of samurai. Later, the number of officials began to grow rapidly.

6. Education of political parties

The most important feature of the process of formation of political movements in Japan was that the parties were formed here before the establishment of a truly constitutional system. Therefore, the parties themselves had a special nature of pro-government groupings mainly than the officials, samurai, and industrialists who distinguished secondary features of programs and ideologies. The first political organization in Japan - "Society for Goal in Life" (russia) - was established in 1875. Politically liberally directed. Next arose another society - Aykokya. It put forward the slogan of political reorganization of power based on the separation of the European-type authorities. By the end of the 1870s. The liberal movement gained a partly anti-government character and therefore could not conquer broad support.

By 1881, the first appeared in Japan political Party Rickken Juito (constitutional-liberal), which arose from the previously educated society "League of Combating Freedom and Folk Rights". In its accuracy, the reform government circles initiated the formation of a purely state-owned party - Rickken Teiseto (Constitutional-Imperial Party). It includes mainly officials of different levels that support the then government leader of the ITO of the Hombus.

The organizational system of parties was undeveloped and replaced by traditional subordination relations, based on the clan and political hierarchy. The defining word remained behind the leader - the organizer of the party. Party democracy, own goal of the party, including in political struggleIn general, considered by the ruling circles of stakes subordinates, retreating before the "Unity of Care of State Interests). In such ideological and political conditions, the possibility of legal emergence of a truly opposition government of parties was excluded.

In April 1888, the Secret Council (Sumitsky) was created - the highest advisory body under the emperor Meiji., February 11, 1889, on the day of Kigansetsu (the national holiday in memory of the foundation of the empire) was the "Imperial Constitution of the Great Japan". In November of next year (1890), so long expected imperial parliament was opened and, thus, the constitutional form of the Board received real implementation.

The Board of Maidi is characterized by a large number of reforms not only an administrative-right, state and political nature, during this period a lot of social reforms were conducted.

In 1872, a decree was adopted on the formation and introduction of the first modern system of schooling in Japan. The new education system included the period of the mandatory primary school, followed by the second stage of the second stage, the highest school, giving or university or academic education, as well as teacher institutes, technical, commercial and other professional schools and women's educational institutions. In October 1890, "Manifesto on Education and Education was published. At the same time, scientific and educational institutions are being created in Japan: Military Academy in Tokio (1873), Maida (Society of the sixth year of Meiji period) - the first scientific organization in Japan to study the idea of \u200b\u200bWest, Europe and Liberalism (1874), Tokyo Meteorological Observatory ( 1875). In 1880, a decree was published on public meetings and organizations.

In 1870-71 The telegraph connection between the cities of Tokyo and Yokohama, the postal service and the release of the first postage grades were organized, in September 1872 the railway line between the cities of Tokyo and Yokohama was opened.

1871 - the law on the post-post record, registration of the name, name, place and date of birth, on the registration of acts of civil status and crimes, adopted the "law on trial on charges of slander" and "Print Law". 1872 - the first population census was held in the country (33,110,825 people).

Civil equality laws were adopted, shop organizations were prohibited in cities, which made relatively free crafts and entrepreneurship.

The reforms touched upon, of course, the foreign policy of the country, before, of all, they were to refuse isolation policies.

In 1871, Ivakura Tomomi in the rank of the authorized ambassador leaves Japan to the United States and European countries for 18 months to explore their public systems.

In 1868, the Imperial Dvor in matters of foreign policy decided to adhere to friendly relations with all countries of the world. However, Chosen (Korea) and China (then under the rule of Manchurian Emperors Qing), acting against the politics of Japan, showed such an unfriendly to her, which forced her to take appropriate measures. As a result, in 1874, Japan sent troops to Tyavan (Formosa) to subjugate this island engaged in the natives, or Sabiba. In 1882 and 1884, when in Kay-Zeyo (Seoul), the capital of Chosen, the riots broke out, the Japanese troops were moved there to force the Chosen government to apologize. In 1885, the first Japanese-China Convention in Tianjin (China) was signed. And B1894 Japan declared War by China, ending with the victory of the first.

7. Conclusion.

The main prerequisite for the reforms of the Maidi era - arising in connection with the "opening of the country" the real threat of uncontrolled influence of the West. Due to the constant thrust to preserve the traditional organization of society, time for the systematic - "soft" - transformations was missed. Accordingly, cardinal changes were required in almost all spheres - economic, social and political.

The aim of the reforms of Maji, if you look at the outside, in many respects there was a desire to catch up with the West as soon as possible, "Modernization". Really, the need for this was caused by the need for a speedy strengthening of the country in order to preserve the independence of Japan. Thus, again, a typical Japanese question arises about the "traditions", the desire to "not lose face." The declared political goal was to restore the immediate rule of the emperor instead of establishing, say, the republican, presidential form of government. The Constitution of 1889 turned out to be quite formal with an excessive value of the emperor.

The specifics of reforms in Japan can be traced when considering the forms of their implementation:

1. The final design of all transformations looked like "reforms from above". For example, the parties never performed "protest functions." They were created by the will of power and as a tool faced against the opposition, unlike the "Western version", where the party occurs, usually, as a form of protest against the authorities. In general, any "reforms from above" in the end received almost silent approval of "bottoms.

2. Almost in all cases, reforms were carried out with a support for traditional realities. First of all, it is inherent in the Japanese society the features of group behavior; The growth of the role of Coto in society as ideology; The principle of unity of Shinto and the Sissei-ITTI state; As a result, when combined with the principle of freedom of religion, the emergence of "state-owned synto" is not even as religion, but as a cult of national morality and patriotism.

Maidi reforms were held for the sake of preserving the foundations of society, in the name of maintaining traditions and in general "modernization of life" consisted, first of all, in the most active formation (both, as well as from the sincere desire) of the new society for the sake of maintaining the basic essence of his obstacles.

"... It was a call for evolution for the sake of return to the" Golden Age ", but at a qualitatively new level ... the perception of the" Western "is, of course, innovation, but also with a turnover side. It is better to sacrifice small and find the possibility of a compromise, without giving way to the main thing: retaining national traditions, specifics - a kind of means to enhance the influence of the country in the new, changed world. " Phillipov A.V. Specificity of reforms in Japan: goals, prerequisites and shapes. - XX scientific Conference According to historiography and the emergence of Asian and Africa, April 6-7, 1999, St. Petersburg.

8. Literature:

1. Universal history of the state and law: a textbook / ed. prof. K.i Batyr. M.: Lawyer,
2. The history of the state and the rights of foreign countries. Under total. ed. O.A. Lykova, N.A. Crashinnikova. M. 1996. Part II. M. 1998.
3. Constitution of the Japanese Empire (February 11, 1889). 1926 // Carrudevsky V.N., Ludshuhuit E.F. Constitution of the East: Egypt. Turkey. Persia. Afghanistan. India. China. Mongolia. Japan. L.: Gosizdat.
4. Constitution of Japan. 2001 // Constitution of foreign countries: USA, United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Canada / Sost. V.V. Maclas. M.: Beck.
5. Medushevsky A.N. 1994. Constitutional monarchy in Europe, Japan and Russia // "Social Sciences and Modernity", No. 6.
6. Medushevsky A.N. 2005. Theory of constitutional cycles. M., Smart.
7. Scientific publication. Japan: Economy, politics, history. / Ed. B.E. Kosolapov. M.: Science, 1989
8. Norman. The emergence of a modern state in Japan. - M.: Science, 1961

Epoch Maidzi (translated by the monarchy restoration)

(Epoch of the enlightened rule of Emperor Mutsukhito)

(1868-1912)

In Japan until the middle of the XIX century. The country ruled large feudals, and the emperor of real power did not have. This form of the board had the name of the segunate.

There were high local taxes, arbitrariness of samurai, the strong influence of various feudal groups, the oppression of peasants, hungry years, which often repeated. Often the uprisings of the peasants and the urban poor were taking place.

1867 - 1868 PP. Revolutionary events in Japan, during which the village was eliminated and the power of the emperor was restored, who relied on the Union of Bourgeoisie, new landowners and rich peasants.

The power of Mutshito established, which began to carry out administrative, agrarian, social, financial, military, judicial, educational reform, borrowing the experience of European countries.

1. According to the Constitution of 1889, Japan is a constitutional monarchy, which was the semi-absolutist, landlord-bourgeois.

2. Parliament had very narrow powers, he could not make any amendments or changes to the Constitution - just the emperor could do.

3. The Constitution proclaimed a number of political freedoms, but in subsequent years they were dramatically limited by various government decrees.

Crash self-isolation policy

The Government of Japan conducted a politics of self-isolation from the outside world.

1853 An American squadron arrived to the shores of Japan under the command of M. Perry to force the authorities to abandon the policies of isolation from the outside world and establish trade and diplomatic relations with the United States. Under the threat to start hostilities, Perry forced the Japanese government to conclude bible treaties with American and European countries.

1854-1858 PP. USA, Great Britain, Holland, France and Russia, under the threat of use of force imposed Japan Anshai contracts. These were non-equivance of contracts. Trade benefits for Europeans have been established, the influx of cheap European goods has begun. These treaties stopped more than two-year isolation of Japan from the outside world.

Samurai is:

In a broad sense - the name of secular feudalists;

In a narrow meaning - a military-feudal class of small serving nobles;

In a figurative sense - Japanese military.

1. The country's fragmentation overcomed and the centralized state was created.

2. There was a quick modernization of the country on the basis of the use of foreign experience, taking into account national traditions.

3. Reforms contributed to the development of market relations in the country.

4. He contributed to overcoming the international isolation of Japan.

5. Attracted Japan in the global economy.

6. Created favorable conditions for the formation of an industrial society.

Economic growth of the country causes the rapid economic growth of Japan

1. The state built plants, shipyards, railways, which then gave to private firms for 20-30% of their cost.

2. At the expense of the state, a transport and communication system was created.

3. The landowners, merchants, resorted to industrial activities, received large subsidies from the state, cheap loans, exemption from taxes.

Subsidium - cash or natural assistance.

4. Japan widely used technical achievements of countries Western Europe and USA.

5. There was cheap labor.

6. Japan captured foreign markets and sources of raw materials as a result of the grip.

Features of economic development

1. They were eliminated by the goals and guilds, which prevented the development of free entrepreneurship.

2. The government built large "exemplary" factories, which were then leased or sold on preferential terms of those firms that were associated with the landlord-bourgeois ruling coalition.

3. The Government provided large subsidies for the construction of enterprises and roads, as well as benefits and privileges with their taxation.

4. In the 70s - 80s of the XIX century. In Japan, private capital, almost 1300 industrial enterprises were created, mainly a manufactory type with manual labor, they were mainly redoned with agricultural raw materials.

5. In the country, minor semi-star-type enterprises prevailed, only 15% of enterprises in the country used machines and mechanisms.

6. At the end of the XIX century. In Japan, monopolies arose. The largest of them:

Mitsu. In her hands there were various industries: spinning, paper, mining, electrotechnical. Was associated with the ruling tip, which received many enterprises built by the government, as well as various benefits and privileges in trade and banking;

Mitsubishi. In her hands there was a banking, marine navigation, shipbuilding, railways, coal industry.

7. The process of capital concentration occurred.

In 1897, five large banks owned 25% of the country's contributions.

1. At the end of the XIX century. The industrial development of Japan, which was promoted by Maidi reforms.

2. The originality of an industrial society, which was formed in Japan, was to strengthen economic and political ties between the imperial courtyard, landowners, bourgeoisie, the preservation of feudal remnants, encouraging the development of industry.

3. The Japanese industry developed unevenly: textile grew by rapid pace, metallurgy due to the shortage of raw materials first developed slow pace.

4. According to the total industrial production, Japan has significantly lagging behind the United Kingdom, France, Germany, the USA and Russia.

5. Agriculture existed landless and small-earth.

Right:

Having determined the general direction of policies to which the updated government should have followed, Emperor Maidzi gave worship of the gods of the sky and the Earth in the third month of the first year of his era (1868) and made a vow to implement five sentences of paramount importance, which the people noticed. These solutions, known as "five points of the imperial oath", the following:

"1. We will convene meetings and manage the people, believing with public opinion.

2. People of higher and lower classes, without distinction, will be unanimous in all enterprises.

3. The handling of civil and military ranks will be such that they will be able to fulfill their duties without feeling displeasure.

4. The talked methods and customs will be destroyed, and the nation will go on the great path of the sky and the Earth.

5. Knowledge will be borrowed from all nations of the world, and the empire will achieve the highest degree of heyday. "

This solemn promise explained to everyone and every new national policies of open and free communication with foreign world, energetic activities and enterprise, not passivity and alienation in intercourse with foreigners. Since then, the people forever captured the ideal in their heart, returned by Emperor Maidie, and tirelessly sought to exercise it for the good of the country.

In the seventh month of the same year (1868), the emperor renamed Edo in Tokyo and visited him; although then he is on short term And returned to Kyoto, but in the spring of next year (1869) forever elected Tokyo with his residence. Soon after that, military velmes in all parts of the country returned their estates together with the people of the Imperial Yard, who accepted them, and in the fourth year, Era Maidzi (1871), at the same time with the abolition of clans (Khan), the old feudal system was replaced by a strictly centralized form. Control.

Even before that, in the first year of the Maidzi era (1868), the imperial yard in matters of foreign policy decided to adhere to friendly relations with all countries of the world. However, Chosen (Korea) and China (then under the rule of Manchurian Emperors Qing), acting against the politics of Japan, showed such an unfriendly to her, which forced her to take appropriate measures. As a result, in the seventh year Maidzi (1874), Japan sent troops to Tyavan (Formosa) in order to subjugate this island engaged in the natives, or "Sabiba". In the 15th and 17th, Era Meiji (1882 and 1884), when in Kay-Zyo (Seoul), the capital of Chosen, the riots broke out, the Japanese troops were moved there to force the Chosen government to apologize. And finally, in the 27th of Mayji (1894), Japan, opening military operations against China, won the victory until the old monarchy requested the world.

As for domestic politics, the government, steadily adhering to the "five points of the imperial oath", for a number of years, comprehensively prepared for the implementation of this great ideal. The emperor himself, who is well aware of the hot desire to open the National Accommodation Assembly, published Manifesta in the 14th of Mayji (1881), promising to convene parliament in the 23rd year (1890). In this regard, the Government has been sent by ITO with hobrums and other persons to various states of Europe to study the constitutional and other state forms of government. In the 18th, Maidzi (1885), the Imperial Dvor issued a decree on the reorganization of the executive authority of the Central Government and on the establishment of the post of Prime Minister and public ministers to guide the activities of various executive bodies. Inteo, Himobumi was appointed by the prime minister. In the 21st year, Maidzi (1888) was established by the Secret Council, the highest deliberative body of the crown. The necessary preparation for the implementation of the act creating an era, and on February 11, on February 22, Mayiji (1889), on the day of Kigansetsu (the national holiday in memory of the foundation of the empire), the Constitution of the Japanese Empire was published. In November of next year (1890), so long expected imperial parliament was opened and, thus, the constitutional form of the Board received real implementation. From the very first years of his reign, Emperor Maidzi was strongly concerned about the issue of enlightening his people, and in the fifth year, Era (1872), he implemented a new education system that included the period of the mandatory attendance of the elementary school, followed by the School of the second stage, the highest school, giving Or university or academic education, as well as teacher institutions, technical, commercial and other professional schools and women's educational institutions, - all of them, from year to year, received more and more development. Given this phenomenal success, in October 23, Maidzi (1890), the emperor bestowed the "Manifesto on Education and Education", in which he explained his subjects of popular education and education. Since then, all the Japanese, in their everyday life, try to guide this manifesto; - acquiring knowledge by learning, engaged in crafts and professional work, they rightly follow the path given by the emperor subjects.

For many years, Russia desired and achieved the acquisition of non-freezing harbor in the Far East. After the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), she convinced Germany and France to join her when discussing peaceful conditionsthat followed this conflict. Russia forced Japan to return to China the Liaodan Peninsula, which she considered the fruit of his victories, and poured oil into the fire of our indignation, when he sent his troops to Manchuria, threatening to advance south. Recognizing the danger of the situation, Japan prepared in case of a critical moment and entered into an alliance with the UK in 1902 (on the 35th year of Meiji). However, Russia was not satisfied with Manchuria, as his prey, and began to stretch his hand to Chosen (then called Can-Koku). Then, in the 37th year, Maidzi (1904), Japan decisively took over the weapon to fight for a durable world in the Far East. Next year (1905), the Japanese troops took Port Arthur, won a strong victory under Mukden and destroyed a large Russian fleet in the Japanese Sea. National prestige of Japan increased. Thanks to the friendly service of the President of the American United States Theodora Roosevelt, the war ended in the conclusion of a peace treaty in Portsmouth. Five years later, in the 43rd Mayji (1910), the Emperor of Japan adopted the state of Chosen from the sovereign reign and joined him to Japan. Kan-Koku, as Korea was called, was again renamed Chosen and subordinates the administrative authority of the Governor's General.

In the first decades, Meiji, the Japanese nation was occupied by the acquisition of new knowledge and skills from Western countries in various areas of the state, economics and science. After the expiration of a well-known time, persons who began to apply borrowed knowledge, respectively, to national nature and needs and continued to be surveys following their own original creative path. Brilliant discoveries in medicine were made, especially in surgery, the wonderful inventions in the field of weapons and equipment, as well as victories in other industries of human activity. The study of the Japanese and Chinese classical literature, temporarily in disregard, was very revived. Thanks to an extremely rapid development of printed business, huge successes were achieved in the training. As for the field of literature, the era of Maidzi, especially its second half, gave many wonderful novelists, novelists, poets-authors "High-ku" (Hockey), thin critics and talented popularizers of Western literature. In the field of elegant arts, the desire to preserve the old artistic works, which emerged in the 12th or 13th year, Maidzi, soon resulted in the form of movement for the revival of ancient art. There was a large number of artists, both the national and Western school, as well as many competing with them in the art of sculptors. In the architecture, in the dressing and color of the tissues, the influence of the West was felt in ceramic and varnished products: on the one hand, they retained the ancient elegance of previous periods, on the other hand, the new features gave freshness of antiquity. These are their development process to date.

So more and more, the prestige of Japan increased and its well-being improved under the emperor Maidzi, who died after the disease on July 30, 1912, on the 45th year of his reign, at the age of 61. In September of the same year, his dust was solemnly buried in Mausoleum Fusimi-Momoyama.