As a result of reforms 60 70. The era of great reforms in Russia (60s of the XIX century)

Training peasant reforms. Modernization of socio-economic and political life the country was prepared by the previous development of Russia. However, there were opponents of the reforms - a significant part of the nobility and the bureaucracy. In the conditions of the crisis of the feudal-serf system and the growth of peasant uprisings, the emperor Alexander II(1818-1881), who understood the need for transformations, in a speech at the reception of the deputation of the Moscow nobles said: “It is better to cancel serfdom from above, rather than waiting for the time when it starts to cancel itself from below ”. A radical restructuring of public life began, the "era of great reforms."

At the beginning of 1857, the Secret Committee on the Peasant Question arose, which, after working for about a year, was transformed into the Main Committee on Peasant Affairs. In the years 1858-1859. about 50 provincial committees were created to develop projects for the liberation of the peasants. To summarize the projects of the provincial committees, Editorial Committees were formed at the beginning of 1859. The Main Committee for Peasant Affairs, then the State Council, based on the materials of the Editorial Committees, developed a concept for the abolition of serfdom. The plan for the emancipation of the peasants boiled down to making as few concessions as possible from the landowners to the emancipated peasants.

Abolition of serfdom. February 19, 1861 Serfdom was abolished by the Manifesto of Alexander II. The emancipation of the peasants was a response to the historical challenge of the capitalist Western Europe, by this time significantly ahead of Russia. According to the Regulations on February 19, 1861, private peasants became personally free. They received the right to dispose of their property, engage in trade, entrepreneurship, move to other classes.

The regulations of February 19 obliged the landowners to give land to the peasants, and the peasants to accept this land. The peasants were given field land according to regional norms, not free of charge, but for duties and ransom. The size of the redemption was determined not by the market value of the land, but by the amount of the capitalized rent (6%). The state, acting as an intermediary between the landlord and the peasant, paid the landlords in the form of the so-called redemption loan (80% of the value of the land given to the peasant), which the peasant then had to repay in installments with payment of the named interest. For 44 years, the peasants were forced to give the state about 1.5 billion rubles. instead of 500 million rubles. The peasants did not have the money to pay the landlord a ransom for the land they had received. The state undertook to immediately pay the redemption amount to the landlords in money or six percent bonds. In an effort to give land within the limits established by the Regulations on February 19, the landlords cut off 1/5 of the land from the former peasant allotment. The plots of land taken from the peasants began to be called sections that could be leased to the same peasants.

The peasants received the land not as personal property, but for the community, which was legally the owner of the land. This meant that the traditional way of life in the village remained intact. The state and the landowners were interested in this, for the mutual responsibility was preserved, the community was responsible for collecting taxes.

Apart from the private peasants, other categories of the peasantry were also exempted from serfdom. Specific peasants, who received personal freedom back in 1858, were transferred to the ransom with the preservation of the existing land allotments (an average of 4.8 dessiatines). The state peasants were assigned the existing allotments by decrees on November 18 and November 24, 1866, and they received an unlimited right to their voluntary redemption. The courtyard peasants received personal freedom, but remained in feudal dependence on their masters for two years from the date of the promulgation of the Regulations on February 19, 1861. Serf workers of patrimonial enterprises remained dependent on the owners until the transition to redemption. Yard peasants and workers of patrimonial enterprises secured to themselves only those lands that they had before the abolition of serfdom. However, the overwhelming majority of household peasants and serfs did not own a land plot.

Following the central provinces, serfdom was abolished in Belarus, Ukraine, the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia. A total of 22 million peasants were freed from serfdom. Of these, 4 million were released without land. Landlessness of peasants facilitated the creation of a labor market in the country.

Carrying out the reform required large financial costs. In addition, government investment in the country's economy has increased. In 1860 the State Bank of Russia was opened, which alone could issue paper money, engage in emission. The main source of state funds was the capitation tax from the peasants without taking into account the amount of their income. In 1863, the poll tax from the bourgeoisie was replaced by the real estate tax.

The reform of 1861 became the most important milestone in the history of the country, it cleared the way for the intensive development of capitalism, creating a labor market. At the same time, the reform was half-hearted. The peasants, having gained freedom, were left inferior to the estate. Peasant land shortages (on average, private peasants received 3.3 dessiatines of land per capita with the required 67 dessiatines) served as a factor in exacerbating the contradictions between peasants and landowners. Moreover, new contradictions arose - between peasants and capitalists, which in the future should have led to a revolutionary explosion. The peasant ideal of justice and truth did not coincide with the actual reform carried out. After 1861, the struggle of the peasants for land did not stop. In the Penza province, the unrest of the peasants was brutally suppressed by the troops.

In order to strengthen public finance in 1862 according to the project V.A. Tatarinova(1816-1871), a budgetary reform was carried out, which regulated the preparation of estimates and the expenditure of public funds. For the first time they began to publish in Russia the state budget.

Land reform. After the abolition of serfdom, other reforms were required. Zemskaya reform of 1864 introduced new institutions in the central provinces and counties - zemstvos, self-government bodies. Zemstvos did not interfere in state issues, their activities were limited to economic, educational functions. Although the zemstvos were called all-estates and were elective, the elections were not general. Most of the members of the zemstvos were nobles. The zemstvos were under the control of the governor and the police. The governor had the authority to suspend the implementation of the decisions of the zemstvos.

Judicial reform. In 1864, a judicial reform began (the new courts initially began to operate only in the Petersburg and Moscow provinces. In other regions, new courts were established gradually, over a long period of time). The independence of the court from the administration was proclaimed: a judge appointed by the government could be dismissed only by a court order. Equal responsibility of all estates before the law was introduced. The limitation of the judicial reform was manifested in the fact that the prosecution of a state official was carried out not by a court decision, but by a decision of his superiors. The publicity of the court was announced, that is, the public and representatives of the press could be present at the hearings. A competition between a prosecutor and a lawyer (attorney at law) was introduced. Although it was proclaimed that the court was devoid of estates, the volost court remained for the peasants, the consistory for the clergy, and the commercial court for the consideration of commercial cases and the cases of merchants. A military court has also survived. Political cases were removed from the district courts and began to be heard by special attendees, without a jury. The highest court was the Senate.

The judicial reform was the most consistent, it contributed to the formation of ideas about human rights in society and the rule of law.

City reform. In 1870, the city government was reorganized on the model of zemstvo institutions. The reform abolished the old Catherine's estate city duma and introduced a non-class duma elected for four years. To manage the city, the city council elected the city council (executive body) and the mayor. Elected bodies were in charge of the city improvement, health care and education. Like the zemstvo institutions, the city duma could not interfere in state issues.

Military reform. The defeat of Russia in Crimean war clearly showed that the army needs a radical reorganization. The tense international situation, the rapid growth of militarism, military equipment, an increase in the number of armies in other states, new methods of warfare and, of course, the country's foreign policy objectives forced the government of Alexander II in 1862-1874. carry out reforms in the military sphere. A major statesman, Minister of War made a huge contribution to the implementation of the reforms. YES. Milyutin (1816-1912).

The country introduced universal military service for males who reached the age of 21, and reduced the terms of service for those who had an education. The term of service in the infantry was set at six years with further enrollment in the reserve for 9 years; in the navy, the service life was 7 years and three years in reserve. The military reform made it possible to significantly increase the size of the army in case of war, improve the training of soldiers and the training of officers. The army began to be equipped with new types of military equipment, a steam fleet was created.

Education reform. Education reform was quite radical for the second half of the XIX v. In 1863, a new university charter was introduced, according to which the rector, professors and associate professors were elected to vacant positions by the university council. This proclaimed the autonomy of universities, which became less dependent on the Ministry of Public Education. However, the teachers elected by the council were approved by the ministry. Another event in educational system was the introduction in 1864 of the principles of the all-estates school, the creation of state, zemstvo and parish schools. These three types of schools represented the primary, three-year education system.

Secondary educational institutions were seven-year gymnasiums: classical, in which the main focus was on teaching ancient languages, and real ones - on teaching mathematics and natural science. Those who graduated from a classical gymnasium had the right to enter a university without exams, and a real one - to technical universities. The continuity of the middle and higher levels of education was established. Higher courses for women emerged.

Reforms in education contributed to the fact that Russian university science and education in the second half of the XIX century. rose to the level of European countries.

The significance of the reforms. The reforms of the 60s and 70s, despite their limitations, were of great importance in the fate of Russia and meant the country's advancement along the path of capitalist development, along the path of transformation feudal monarchy into the bourgeois and the development of democracy. The reforms were a step from the landlord state to the rule of law. Long-term alienation from power became characteristic only of radical-minded youth and revolutionary democrats. The reforms demonstrated that positive changes in society can be achieved not by revolutions, but by transformations from above, in a peaceful way. A process of peaceful renewal began in Russia, but it was soon interrupted. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II, Tsar-Liberator1 was killed by members of Narodnaya Volya, which set out to change the political system by means of regicide.

Going to reaction. With accession to the throne Alexander III(1845-1894) put an end to liberal reforms. The essence of his government's policy was expressed in a departure from the Russian society democratic elements, in the implementation of counter-reforms, which lasted from 1881 to 1892. This was the period of the triumph of conservative politics, backward movement. The autocracy saw its social support only in the nobility. In the Noble Bank, founded in 1885, interest rates on loans were lower than in the Peasant Bank.

On March 8, the Council of Ministers rejected the constitution drafted by Count M.T. Loris-Melikov(1825-1888) and approved by Alexander II. On April 29, 1881, the Manifesto "On the inviolability of autocracy" was adopted, proclaiming faith in "the strength and truth of autocratic power."

In 1889, the position of zemstvo chiefs was established to supervise the activities of the peasant communal self-government. The Magistrates' Court was abolished.

In 1892, changes were made to the city government, those who did not have real estate lost the right to choose. The governor was empowered to direct the actions of city government bodies. Also, the control of the justice and internal affairs bodies over legal proceedings was established, publicity was curtailed. Since 1881, the omnipotence of censorship has been restored, the liberal editions Golos, Otechestvennye zapiski, and many works of Russian and European writers have been banned.

In education, the reactionary policy of tsarism manifested itself in the actual elimination of university autonomy, restricting access to gymnasiums for children of the lower strata of the population (circular of the Minister of Public Education "On the Cook's Children"). Women's higher education has significantly narrowed: admission to the Higher Women's Courses has been discontinued (only the Bestuzhev courses with a limited contingent have survived).

In national politics, the state pursued violent russification and religious oppression. The result of the reforms was a significant weakening of the liberal movement, an increase in the gap between the immobile political system and the dynamically developing socio-economic relations in the country. The autocracy managed to isolate the people from the liberals. And if the peasantry in the 60-70s. as a whole did not follow the revolutionary populists, then at the beginning of the XX century. the peasantry, alienated from the liberals, followed the revolutionaries.

Post-reform development of Russia. The years after the great reforms of the 60s and 70s. this is a period of rapid economic development accompanied by changes in the social structure of society. TO late XIX v. Russia became the largest country in the world in terms of territory and population, with 126 million inhabitants.

Her economic development was noted by a number of features, the most important of which were:

a) uneven distribution of productive forces. Great importance acquired new industrial regions - South, Transcaucasia, Baltic. The Urals began to lag behind in their development. The remnants of serfdom led to a decline in its role in Russian industry. Regions of Siberia and Central Asia remained undeveloped;

b) a high degree of concentration of production and workers. Thus, in 1890, half of all workers in Russia were employed in enterprises with 500 or more workers. By the level of concentration of the working class by the end of the XIX century. Russia ranked first among the capitalist countries;

c) along with large-scale industry, peasant trades still played a significant role in economic life;

d) penetration into Russian economy foreign capital attracted by cheap labor, raw materials, as well as ample opportunities for the development of entrepreneurial activity. If by the 60s. foreign capital in Russian industry amounted to 9.7 million rubles, then by the end of the 70s. - 97.7 million rubles.

The main branch of the economy remained agriculture, where the remnants of serfdom remained. Some of the landowners adapted their farms to the capitalist market and increased the marketability of grain. But the majority of the landowners were unable to transfer their economies to a capitalist way and went bankrupt. If by 1880 15% of the landowners' lands were laid, then in 1895 - already 40%.

For the 60-90s. the average grain yield increased from 29 to 39 poods per tithe, and the average annual grain yield increased from 1.9 to 3.3 billion poods. However, agriculture continued to develop extensively. As noted D.F. Samarin, in Europe feeds 500 people from one kilometer of land, while in Russia only 40.

The peasantry suffered from land shortages, and the land hunger was especially acute in the European part of Russia. If in 1860 there were 4.8 acres of land per man's soul, then in 1880 - 3.6, and in 1900 - only 2.6. The lack of land forced the peasants to rent land from the landowner for processing, sharecropping and sharecropping1.

By the end of the XIX century. the agrarian question became aggravated. The possibilities for the development of agriculture, provided by the reform of 1861, were exhausted. New agrarian transformations were needed, which could be carried out either peacefully or in a revolutionary way.

Significant changes in the post-reform years took place in industry. Not only the old industries (textile, food) were developing, but new ones are emerging - oil-extracting, chemical, machine-building.

In the 80-90s. the industrial revolution ended and the machine industry replaced the manufacture. In terms of production growth rates in the industries that determine the process of industrialization, by the 80s, Russia came out on top in the world, and in terms of absolute production volumes into the five largest powers in the world. From 1860 to 1895. pig iron smelting increased 4.5 times, coal production - 30 times, oil - 754 times. Railway construction was developed on a wide scale. By the beginning of the 60s. the length of railways was 1.5 thousand km, and by the beginning of the XX century. - more than 50 thousand km.

But despite the rapid development of industry, the industrialization of the country was not completed, and Russia could not catch up with the advanced countries of Europe and America.

The development of capitalism in Russia, accelerated by bourgeois reforms, state intervention in economic life, and an increase in its capital investments, could not but affect the social-class structure of society. There was an increase in the size of the working class: by the end of the XIX century. the industrial proletariat numbered more than 5 million; from 1865 to 1879 the number of industrial workers increased by 1.5 times, and the number of railway workers by 6 times. However, by the end of the 19th century. only 40% of industrial workers were hereditary workers.

The rich peasants, merchants and nobles were the sources of the formation of the bourgeoisie. The size of the bourgeoisie by the end of the XIX century. reached 1.5 million people. Although its economic power (key positions in industry, finance, penetration into agriculture) was significant, its social influence and political weight were not great enough. The support of the bourgeoisie from the state made it conservative and devoted to the autocracy. Therefore, it began to create its own political parties only at the beginning of the 20th century.

The political dominance of the nobility was shaken during the reign of Nicholas I, and in the second half of the 19th century. it has lost its dominant position in society: political power passed to the bureaucracy, and the ideological - to the intelligentsia. Over 1.8 million noblemen still retained their economic power. Despite the decline in noble land ownership, the value of noble lands in European Russia was 60% higher than the value of the entire share capital.

On the whole, the ruling circles did not want to see a contradiction between the immobile political structure and the socio-economic development of the country.

Ministers N.Kh. Bunge(1823-1895) and S.Yu. Witte(1849-1915), who defended liberal trends in the economy and pursued a protectionist policy, carried out a series of reforms aimed at stabilizing finances, improving the tax system, industrializing the country and turning it into a first-class power. In 1894, a monopoly on vodka was introduced, which made it possible to significantly increase state revenues: if in the early 80s. state revenues amounted to 730 million rubles. then already in 1897 - about 1.5 billion rubles. The country's gold reserves have tripled and reached 649 million rubles. A monetary reform was carried out (1897), according to which the gold ruble was introduced into circulation instead of the paper ruble and a free exchange of the credit ruble for gold was established.

Economic policy S.Yu. Witte was associated with attracting foreign capital to industry, banks and government loans... Russia attracted 3 billion gold rubles of foreign loans. Higher duties on imported foreign goods, indirect taxes on kerosene, matches and other items, and the introduction of a trade tax on industry also boosted government revenues. The accumulated funds were used for the intensive development of Russian industry.

At the same time, the standard of living of the broad masses of the people was low. There was essentially no labor legislation. By the end of the XIX century. The democratization of public life has not been carried out in Russia. The industrial revolution did not affect agriculture, half of the peasants cultivated the land with a plow, although Russia was the most important supplier of grain to Europe.

The anti-labor policy of the state contributed to the fact that the workers' movement was led by revolutionaries, and the peasantry, suffering from land shortages, turned out to be susceptible to socialist propaganda. Contradictions between the autocratic system and the transforming economy in Russia by the end of the 19th century. extremely aggravated.

Social and political movement. Failures in reforming Russia by Alexander I, the defeat of the Decembrists led to the growth of conservative sentiments in society. In the 30s. Minister of Education S.S. Uvarov(1786-1855) put forward the theory of "official nationality", the essence of which was the assertion that the Russian people are religious in nature, devoted to the tsar and do not oppose serfdom. This theory was used as a basis public education in educational institutions. However, in the "cruel age" of Nikolaev reaction, the ideological and political struggle not only did not stop, it became wider and more diverse, currents arose in it that differed in questions about the general and the particular in historical process and the fate of Russia.

Sharp criticism of the government ideology was made by P.Ya. Chaadaev(1794-1856) in his "Philosophical Letter" (1836), in which he touched upon the problems of the past, present and future of Russia. The author was declared insane. Study by members of the circle N.V. Stankevich(1813-1840) the works of Hegel, Kant, Schelling and other German philosophers were considered dissent.

A special understanding of the ways of development of Russia was characteristic of representatives of two ideological currents Westerners and Slavophiles. The Slavophiles were: A.S. Khomyakov (1808-1856), K.S. Aksakov (1817-1860), P.V. Kireevsky (1808-1856), I.V. Kireevsky (1806-1856), Yu.F. Samarin(1819-1876) and others. Proving the originality of the Russian historical development, they denied capitalism, as well as the possibility and necessity of a revolution in Russia. The Slavophiles argued that Peter's reforms caused serious damage to Russian traditions and led the country off the right path. They saw the prosperity of Russia in Orthodoxy, the peasant community, conciliarity and autocracy, limited by the Zemsky Sobor.

The opponents of the Slavophils were Westerners: A.I. Herzen (1812-1870), T.N. Granovsky (1813-1855), B.N. Chicherin(1828-1904), K. D. Kavelin (1818-1885), V.P. Botkin (1811/12-1869), M.N. Katkov(1818-1887), who sharply criticized the communal principles of Russian reality. They affirmed the European version of Russia's development, believing that the assimilation of the achievements of European culture and technological progress by the broad masses would ensure the well-being of the people.

In the late 40s. XIX century. the nature of ideological searches is changing and views are being formed revolutionary democrats V.G.Belinsky (1811-1848), A.I. Herzen, N.P. Ogareva(1813-1877) and others A.I. Herzen in his work reflected the specifics of the political situation in the country and the range of problems that occupied the minds of the thinking part of Russian society. Terrible, supreme despotism and inquisitorial management, according to Herzen, forced him to leave his homeland. Almanac published by him abroad « polar Star» and the magazine "Bell" played huge role in the education of Russia. Herzen and Belinsky believed that socialism built in the future would become a society without the exploitation of man by man.

Members of the circle advocated the republican form of government and the liberation of peasants from serfdom M.V. Petrashevsky(1821-1866).

At the beginning of the reign of Alexander II, representatives of various ideological currents were united in understanding the need for socio-economic transformations. But the limitations of the agrarian reform led to the rise of the opposition to the autocracy of the movement and its split into a liberal and revolutionary direction. The revolutionary direction consisted of two currents: populism and Marxism. The ideology of populism, the most important position of which is the transition of Russia to socialism, bypassing the capitalist path of development. Neither "going to the people" nor Act of terrorism, nor the assassination of Alexander II led to the people's revolution and the destruction of the autocratic system.

Interest in Marxism in Russia increased in the 70s. In the 80s. illegal Marxist groups and circles appeared. In Geneva, the established G.V. Plekhanov(1856-1918) group Emancipation of Labor. In 1895, the scattered social democratic circles of St. Petersburg were united IN AND. Lenin(1870-1924) in "Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class." V In 1898, the I Congress of Social Democratic Organizations of Russia was held, which announced the creation of political party the working class, however, the charter and the program were not adopted.

So the first quarter of the 19th century. was marked by liberal reforms government controlled and the development of a program for transforming Russia by M.M. Speransky. It was a period of confrontation between bourgeois France and feudal-serf Russia.

The heroic struggle of the Russian people in Patriotic War 1812 resolved this confrontation in favor of Russia and confirmed its priority in Europe.

The thirty-year Nicholas era was the time of the establishment of the autocratic power, which was defeated in the Crimean War.

In the second half of the XIX century. the autocracy was forced to engage in self-improvement and carry out a whole series of liberal reforms that ensure the rapid development of capitalism.

However, the incompleteness of the reforms contributed to the formation of the illegal opposition and its social base. The resolution of acute contradictions in society was postponed for subsequent years.

Self-test questions

1. Tell us about the reforms carried out in the first decade of the reign of Alexander I.

2. In what historical meaning victory of the Russian people over Napoleonic France?

3. Expand the main provisions of "Russian Truth" P. Pestel and "Constitution" N. Muravyov.

4. Describe the features of the industrial revolution in Russia.

5. What reforms were carried out in the 60s and 70s? Expand their nature and historical significance.

6. Name the counter-reforms of Alexander III.

7. How did capitalism develop in the post-reform years?

8. Give a description of the social and political movement in Russia in the middle of the second half of the XIX century.

Newest time

Alexander ascended the throne after the death of his father in 1855. The Russian press and universities have received more freedom.

As a result of the unsuccessful Crimean War (1853-1856), the empire found itself on the edge of a social and economic abyss: its finances and economy were disorganized, the technological lag behind the advanced countries of the world was increasing, the population remained poor and illiterate.

The reform application was made by Alexander II in March 1856, shortly after his accession to the throne.

In the middle of the 19th century, Russia was largest state the world. The overwhelming majority of the Russian population were peasants. The main categories of the peasantry were appanage, state and landowner peasants.

The leading organizational unit of the peasant economy was the peasant family - tax, with corvee economy the cultivation of the lord's field was carried out by the free labor of serfs. At quitrent farm serfs were released on quitrent: they could engage in any kind of economic, annual payment to the landowner. There were cases when quitrent peasants became richer than their landowners. The noble households were also in a state of deep crisis. Agriculture in Russia was in need of radical reform.

On a national scale, small-scale production prevailed, represented by domestic industry and handicrafts (flax spinning, wool processing, linen weaving and felt felting). In the middle of the XIX century. the specialization of small-scale industry is increasing, and in a number of areas specialized centers appear, in which commodity producers of one particular branch of industry accumulate. Large-scale industry in the middle of the 19th century. represented by manufactories and factories. The country began industrial revolution... The gap between the Russian state and Europe was enormous. The most important reason for the ineffective work of the Russian industry was serfdom. The lack of skilled labor was also a negative factor.

Reforms

The beginning of one of the central reforms dates back to 1864, new "Judicial Charters" were issued, which changed the order of legal proceedings in the empire. Before the reform, the courts were under the strong influence of the authorities. According to the judicial reform, the court was introduced instead of the estate courts extraclassical... The judges were given irremovability and independence. Introduced adversarial nature of the court, which made it possible for an objective and detailed investigation. Moreover, the court became vowel. The system of courts was also changed - for the analysis of small cases - magistrates' courts. For the analysis of small matters arising in the peasant environment - volost courts, d for the analysis of more serious cases in the provincial cities - district courts with criminal and civil departments. The Senate was assigned the function of general supervision over the state of legal proceedings in the country.

Simultaneously with the change in the system of courts and legal proceedings, the system of punishments was significantly mitigated. Thus, various types of corporal punishment were abolished.

In 1874 was promulgated Compulsory military service charter... Previously, the Russian army was formed as a result of recruiting, wealthy people could buy off 25 years of military service by hiring a recruit. Under the new law, all men who turned 21 were to be conscripted into military service. Those taken into service were supposed to serve six years in the ranks and nine years in the reserve. Then, until they reached 40 years old, they had to be listed in the militia.

The system of soldier training has changed. The soldiers were taught to fulfill the sacred duty of defending their Fatherland, they were taught to read and write

The educational reform began in 1863, when the Charter of Universities - the professorial corporation was granted self-government, and the Board of Professors at each university could elect all university officials. The first attempt in Russia to create a higher educational institution for women dates back to 1863.

Access to the gymnasium has become equally open to. The gymnasiums were of two types - classical and real. V classic the study of the humanities was considered the main one. V real gymnasiums, the emphasis was on the study of mathematics and natural sciences... In 1871, Emperor Alexander signed new charter gymnasiums, - a classical gymnasium - the only type of general and extra-class school, Since the end of the 50s, women's gymnasiums for female students from all classes, as well as female diocesan schools for daughters of clergymen .. Under Alexander II, a new type of secular primary school was created - zemstvo, which were in the care of the zemstvos and quickly became numerous. Have appeared free peasant schools, created by peasant societies. Continued to exist parish schools. In all provinces were created folk Sunday schools. Education in all types of primary schools was free

The general state list of income and expenses was now subject to annual publication, i.e. the publicity of the budget was introduced. A system of national control has been created. Estimates for all departments were regularly and centrally reviewed for next year... It was also introduced "Cash unity" - the procedure under which the movement of all monetary amounts in the treasuries of empires was subject to the general order of the Ministry of Finance. There was a reform of the banking system in the country: in 1860 the State Bank was created. Tax reform was also carried out. One of the most important changes was the abolition of the wine lease. all wine that went on sale was taxed excise - special tax in favor of the treasury.

In 1875, when the Serb uprising against the Turks broke out. This contributed to the spread of patriotic feelings in Russian society. At the beginning of 1877, at the initiative of Russia, a conference of European diplomats was held, which demanded that the Sultan yield. The Sultan refused. Then in April 1877 g. Russia declared war on Turkey... In the winter of 1878, the Sultan asked for peace. A preliminary peace treaty was signed in San Stefano. The terms of the San Stefano Peace Treaty were contested by Britain and Austria, who did not want to strengthen Russia in this region. At the Berlin Congress, the clauses of the treaty were revised. By Berlin Treaty ( July 1878), it led to a deterioration in relations between Russia and the leading European countries England, Austria, Germany. Thus, Russia was unable to help the Slavic peoples and increase its influence in the Balkans and remained almost isolated, without reliable allies and friends.

Consequences of the reforms

The country's economy revived, the growth of the urban population accelerated, cities began to play a more significant role in the development of the country. The construction of roads and transport began to develop at a faster pace than before. The construction of a network of roads made it possible to increase the turnover of Russia's foreign trade, and the number of trade and industrial enterprises increased. The state of the state has improved. budget.

The nobility lost its monopoly position in the country, although the highest state was appointed from among the nobles. officials and nobles headed the governing bodies. The nobles were going through a severe material crisis. The land of the nobility gradually passed to the peasants and the commercial and industrial class.

The ruin of the nobility the redistribution of land ownership and the growth of anti-government sentiments among the noble youth became the most important result of the transformations of the 60-70s of the 19th century.

Russian society now consisted of civil equal classes. All were equally conscripted for military service, could do any business on an equal basis. The process of democratizing society became the most important consequence of Alexander's reforms. For some n igilism was a life credo. Being critical of the existing system, they did not consider it obligatory for themselves to obey the established rules. The greatest role in the campaign work in the 50-60s was played by magazines.

Revolutionary and anti-government sentiments have sharply increased in society. Underground organizations have also formed, aiming to fight against the existing regime as a whole and personally against Emperor Alexander II. Most of them were concentrated in St. Petersburg and Moscow. In 1861 the organization was created "Land and Freedom", advocated the convocation of an unclassified people's assembly and an elected government, full self-government of peasant communities and the creation of a voluntary federation of regions. A secret revolutionary circle of the Ishutins joined it; they set themselves the task of preparing a revolutionary coup in Russia. Member of the Ishutinsky circle Karakozov April 4, 1866 shot at Alexander II at the gates of the Summer Garden in St. Petersburg. Karakozov was arrested and executed. The shot led to mass arrests and increased censorship. The government moved away from reforms.

In the 70s, the revolutionary movement in Russia grew and took on an increasingly extremist character. At the beginning At the end of the 70s, two new organizations were formed on the basis of "Earth and Freedom": "Black redistribution" who wanted to achieve the redistribution of land in favor of the peasants and the nationalization of the land, and "Narodnaya Volya" prioritizing political struggle, the destruction of autocracy, the introduction of democratic freedoms and terror against the highest officials in the state. The main "object" is Alexander II. Under these conditions, the "Supreme Administrative Commission" was established. March 1, 1881, Alexander II died - in St. Petersburg the People's Will blew up the tsar's crew with a bomb.

The era of great liberal reforms is over.

Alexander III His son Alexander III. Alexander III considered his main goal to be the strengthening of autocratic power and state order. The main direction of its domestic policy- suppress revolutionary actions in the country and revise the laws adopted under Alexander II in order to make it impossible for their further dissemination.

Alexander dismissed some of the ministers, and the Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich, Of those close to the throne, he stood out K.P. Pobedonostsev(1827-1907). He considered the main direction to be the creation of a strong monarchical Russia by restoring churchliness in Russian life: He played a significant role in domestic politics. V.K. Pleve(1864-1904), Minister of the Interior. Thanks to his actions, all personal freedoms in the country were limited. Censorship was also tightened.

The government has carried out important reforms in the field taxation and finance. V In 1885, the poll tax was abolished. Various taxes were also introduced (land, insurance_. In 1888, the state budget became deficit-free.

The government continued to pay great attention to agrarian sector - the main branch of the country's economy. Efforts were made to alleviate the plight of the peasants. The Peasant Land Bank was created to help peasants buy and sell land. A number of laws were issued that went down in history as counter-reforms - they tied the peasants to the rural community and landlord estates, and limited the economic freedom of the peasants. Introduction of the Institute in 1889 zemstvo chiefs,- strengthened government custody of the peasants. The same goal was pursued by the published in 1890. new regulation on zemstvos - the role of the nobility in zemstvo institutions was more strengthened. N new regulation on city government in 1892 strengthened the rights of the administration.

To support the nobility, in 1885 was established Noble Land Bank..

To streamline the relationship between workers and manufacturers, it was adopted factory legislation,- systems of penalties for misconduct. For the first time, the length of the working day was stipulated by law. established working standards for women and children.

The tsarist administration took steps to develop domestic industry. Foreign capital was attracted to the country (ferrous metallurgy and mining industry). Foreign capital determined the development of mechanical engineering and electrical engineering. The industrial revolution continued in the country.

The priority direction of the government's activity was the construction of railways. Already in the 90s, the railway network covered almost half of all Russian cities and connected Moscow and St. Petersburg. However, the main mode of transport is horse-drawn, and the type of roads is unpaved, which hindered the economic development of the country.

The most common type of urban settlements were small towns.

In the second half of the XIX century. In western and central regions In the empire, industry developed much faster. The development of the domestic market and the growth of agricultural marketability had an impact on relations between Russia and other states.

Foreign policy The epoch of 1881-1894 turned out to be calm for Russia: Russia did not fight with other states. In the second half of the XIX century. Its territorial growth continued. In the 50-60s, it included Kazakh and Kyrgyz lands. By 1885, the whole of Central Asia had already become part of the Russian Empire. In 1887 and 1895. Agreements were concluded between Russia and England that defined the border with Afghanistan.

Russia continued to import machinery and equipment and a variety of consumer goods, and exported mainly agricultural products - grain, hemp, flax, timber, livestock products.

The fall in grain prices had a negative impact on the relationship between Russian and German landowners. Customs war between Russia and Germany was especially tense in 1892-1894, and in 1894 a trade agreement was signed, which was unfavorable for Russia.

Since that time, the contradictions between Germany and Russia have intensified, which at the beginning of the XX century. will lead to a clash of These powers in the First World War.

At the end of the XIX century. about 130 million people lived in the empire. Russia was a multinational state. Orthodoxy was the state religion in the empire. Orthodoxy was essential foundation education and culture in Russia.

The culture

The opening in 1869 became a world event. periodic law chemical elements -DI. Mendeleev.

There was a telephone connection.

B1892 the construction of tram lines began.

Literature - Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev.

Painting - The realistic direction is represented by the work of the Itinerants (Repin, Surikov, Shishkin, Polenov). In a romantic manner - Aivazovsky.

Music - Tchaikovsky, (Borodin, Mussorgsky. Rimsky - Korsakov - A mighty bunch of hands. Balakirev)



Peasant Reform of 1861 and the Post-Reform Development of Russia

In the early 50's. XIX century. Russia seemed to contemporaries a powerful power in the military-political respect. Top government officials relied on the country's supposedly unlimited military-economic resources. However, the deep crisis of the serf system had a disastrous effect on the country's economy and its military potential. The defeat in the Crimean War revealed in the eyes of society the inconsistency not only of the policy of Nicholas I, but of the entire regime as a whole.

Meanwhile, the convictions of the new Tsar Alexander II (on the throne since February 1855) did not bode well for transformations: on a number of issues, Alexander was still a dumb conservative than his father. However, the course of things actually forced Alexander to carry out reforms. Already a year after accession, he uttered the famous phrase: "It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait for the time when it will automatically begin to abolish from below."

In 1857, in the best traditions of the last reign, the next Secret Committee began to work out the liberation of 35% of the empire's subjects from a slave state. However, many top dignitaries and bureaucracy hindered this project in every possible way. Then the nobles were asked to elect committees for the provinces to discuss the conditions for the abolition of the serfdom of the peasants. Alexander transformed the Secret Committee into the Main Provincial Committee, giving it an open character, and he began to consider projects and proposals of local committees of the nobility. The brothers D.A. and N.A. Milyutins, Ya. I. Rostovtsev, S.S. Lanskoy and others. A great role in carrying out the liberal reforms was played by the Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich and The grand duchess Elena Pavlovna, who had a strong influence on the emperor and on the very course of reforms.

Differences in economic conditions in the provinces were reflected in the projects of the nobles. The nobles of the non-black earth zone received the main income in the form of monetary quitrent from the peasants. The land in such provinces gave poor harvests, and most of the peasants there were engaged in trade and various trades, from which they paid the quitrent. Therefore, the nobility of the non-black earth zone was ready to free their peasants with large land plots, but with such a ransom that it compensated for the loss of high quitrent taxes by the landowners.

In the chernozem provinces, where the land gave rich harvests and corvee was widespread, the landowners received the main income from the land. In these provinces, the nobility was ready to free their peasants even without ransom, but also without land allotments, in order to preserve the main wealth - the land for themselves.

Finally, there was a lot of land in the steppe zone, but it was relatively sparsely populated. Here the landowners strove to retain their labor force. Therefore, the nobility of the steppe zone proposed to establish a long (10-12 years) transition period after the abolition of serfdom, during which the feudal obligations of the peasants would be preserved.

It should be borne in mind that a fairly significant part of the landowners generally opposed the abolition of serfdom, and this also influenced the final version of the peasant reform, which was in the nature of a compromise between the government and landowners (note that the liberation of slaves in the United States at the same time led to a long and a fierce civil war).

In the fall of 1860, the editorial commissions completed the drafting of the peasant reform project, largely reflecting the wishes of the nobility of the various provinces. On February 19, 1861, Alexander signed the "Regulations" and the Manifesto on the emancipation of the peasants from serfdom. According to the Manifesto, the peasants immediately received personal freedom and a number of civil rights. They could conclude property and civil transactions, move to other estates, open industrial and commercial enterprises. The "Regulations" elaborated in detail the conditions for the release of peasants in various provinces of Russia.

It should be borne in mind that the abolition of serfdom was not a one-time act of 1861. It was a process that lasted for decades. For two years after the publication of the Manifesto (until 1863), the peasants had to remain in the position of "temporarily liable" (see "Temporarily liable peasants") and perform the same duties, albeit in a somewhat limited form.

The law proceeded from the fact that all land, including peasant allotments, belonged to the landowner. The peasants were considered only users of this land. To become the owner of his allotment, the peasant had to buy it from the landlord. Moreover, the land allotment was compulsory. The financial conditions for the ransom were extremely difficult for the peasants. The ransom amount was income from feudal duties, not the market price of the land. Since the peasants had no money for the ransom, the state paid the landlord 80% of the ransom amount at once, and the peasants paid the rest of the amount to the landowner, as a rule, in installments. The redemption amount paid to the landowners by the state was then collected from the peasants to the treasury for 49 years (in 1905 this condition was canceled).

The size of the peasant allotment of the natural and economic conditions of the provinces, and the entire territory of European Russia was divided into three bands: black earth, non-black earth and steppe. In the first two bands, the "highest" and "lowest" norms of peasant allotments were established, in the steppe - "indicated." The law provided for a cut off from the peasant allotment in favor of the landowner, if the allotment exceeded the norm established in the area. And vice versa, if the peasant allotment did not reach the minimum rate, the law provided for the land cutting. In most cases, the practice of plots of land from peasant plots was in effect. As a result, the landowners retained huge land holdings, and the peasants received allotments at their disposal, the size of which often did not allow for a household that would provide a living wage. It should be noted that the reform did not affect the organization of the peasant society - the community, which retained its own land use order and mutual responsibility.

Since the preparation for the reform began, the peasants patiently waited for their freedom, hoping that they would receive "full freedom", that is, the power of the landowners would immediately fall, they would receive their allotments free of charge, and perhaps the land of the landowners. The stronger was the disappointment, the widespread discontent of the peasants. In a number of provinces, the government used force to pacify the peasants. The most famous and bloodiest incident of this kind occurred in the village of Bezdna, Penza province, where soldiers began to shoot at the peasants. According to official, clearly underestimated figures, 55 people died.

The events in the Abyss caused a sharp protest from the democratic strata of society. In Kazan, students headed by Professor A.P. Shchapov demonstratively served a requiem. From 1861 anti-government proclamations began to appear. At the center of the proclamation campaign was N.G. Chernyshevsky. In the summer and autumn of 1861, three numbers of the illegal “Velikoruss” leaflet were distributed in St. Petersburg and Moscow. The authors of the leaflets criticized the peasant reform, demanded the introduction of a constitution, trial by jury, freedom of speech and press. Then in St. Petersburg appeared the proclamation "Towards the Young Generation", written by N.V. Shelgunov and printed in the London printing house by A.I. Herzen. Even earlier, in May 1861, the proclamation "Young Russia" made a great impression on contemporaries. Its author was a Moscow student P.G. Zaichnevsky. In a proclamation, he argued the inevitability of a "bloody and inexorable" revolution. The government responded with repressions: in 1862, the journals of the radical direction Sovremennik and Russkoe Slovo were closed, N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Serno_Solovievich, D.I. Pisarev.

Reforms of 1860-1870

The abolition of serfdom necessitated a number of other social economic reforms... Zemskaya reform. Since 1864, zemstvos - non-estate bodies were introduced in the European part of Russia local government... The competence of the zemstvos included issues of local health care, education, local communications, trade and industry. The political rights of the zemstvos were limited; they could only apply to the government with petitions, but did not have legislative initiative. In 1870, the city government was also reorganized. Judicial reform. The most consistent and well-thought-out was the reform of the judiciary (1864). The judicial reform put into effect an unclassified, open, open, adversarial process. The institution of jurors, elected from representatives of all classes, also appeared. The preliminary investigation was removed from the police and transferred to special judicial investigators. Financial reform. Back in 1860, the State Bank was established, the state budget was streamlined. The only manager of income and expenses was the Minister of Finance. Began publishing for general information list of income and expenditures of the state. The pay-off system was abolished. In all provinces, control chambers, independent of local authorities, were established to monitor the income and expenditures of all provincial institutions. Military reforms (1864-1874). The defeat in the Crimean War showed the military-technical backwardness of Russia from the leading European countries. The reorganization of the army largely depended on the level of development of industry and transport. Therefore, military reforms dragged on for a long time. The main ideologist and organizer of the reforms was the Minister of War D.A. Milyutin is a highly educated and progressive statesman. Under his leadership, the military command system was reorganized, the military network was expanded. educational institutions, the structure of command and control has been changed. The central place in the reforms was taken by a new system of manning the army and navy - the replacement of recruitment kits with universal conscription. The introduction of general conscription had an effect only with the rapid mobilization of the reservists in the reserve. However, only the growth of railway construction in the 60-70s. XIX century. made it possible to switch to a new system of manning the army in 1874. Compulsory military service extended to the entire male population over the age of 20, without distinction of class. Persons who had benefits (the only son, the only breadwinner in the family, etc.) were exempted from active service. The service life was significantly reduced depending on the educational qualification. So, full term conscript service in the army was 6 years, and for persons with higher education - only six months.

Reforms were also carried out in the field of secondary and higher education, print.

Importance of reforms

The abolition of serfdom and other reforms significantly changed the social and economic structure of Russia. Reforming the country, its modernization led to the elimination of class barriers. The economic and cultural importance of the landowning nobility gradually declined, and at the same time, the number and influence in society of representatives of the middle classes, who were called commoners, increased. Only after the abolition of serfdom began the slow but steady transformation of Russia into a country with a modern capitalist industry. Of course, the reforms were contradictory, inconsistent, especially the peasant reforms. In all spheres of life, serfdom traits were preserved. Autocracy as the basis of the political system did not undergo any changes. The incomplete nature of the reforms of the 60s and 70s largely contributed to the revolutionary explosion at the beginning of the 20th century.

Economic development in the post-reform era

With the abolition of serfdom, large-scale machine production began to develop rapidly, new industries appeared, and new economic regions were formed. The process of stratification of the peasantry, which began in the pre-reform period, intensified sharply after the reforms. The number of the two extreme groups of the peasantry - the wealthy and the poorest - grew. This created the preconditions for the development of the labor market both in industry and in agriculture... The impoverished, bankrupt peasants were forced to sell their labor power.

The post-reform period was characterized by two main forms of landlord management — labor-based and capitalist. The first was the cultivation of landowners' land by peasants for providing them with additional arable land and other land; the second is the hiring of workers by the landlord. Already in the 1880s. the capitalist form of landlord management began to prevail. For those landlord farms that were unable to reorganize themselves in a capitalist way, a painful process of decline and ruin began.

After the abolition of serfdom, a significant part of the peasants began to become impoverished, unable to adapt to the new conditions of farming. It was they who joined the ranks of the rural and urban proletariat. At the same time, there was an increase in the number of rich peasants (kulaks), who concentrated in their hands the arable land of their less successful brothers and ruined landowners. The kulak farms, like the landowners who restructured their farms in a capitalist manner, produced products mainly for the market.

The industrial revolution in Russia began in the 30's and 40's. XIX century. and mostly ended in the 80s. It was from this time that the production of means of production began to prevail in industry, while in the first post-reform years the leading role was played by textile production and other branches of light industry.

In the 70-80s. XIX century. new industries appear for Russia: coal, chemical, oil production, machine building. New economic centers (St. Petersburg, Moscow, the Baltic states, the Urals) are added to the old economic centers: Donbass, Baku Oil Production, Ukraine. Kolomna, Sormovo, Kharkov, Odessa became large centers of mechanical engineering. The total volume of production for the 60-90s. XIX century. increased by 8 times. The mining industry developed especially rapidly. Railway construction experienced a real boom (in 1861 there were 1,488 versts of railways, in 1900 - 47,800).

Industrial development in the post-reform period was uneven and cyclical. After the rise in the 60s, from the second half of the 70s. XIX century. recession begins. Since the beginning of the 90s. and until the end of the century - a new, already more powerful rise, which is associated with the economic policy of S.Yu. Witte.

The development of industry contributed to the formation of the industrial proletariat and the industrial bourgeoisie. A permanent cadre of workers is emerging who will forever break with the countryside. The proportion of hereditary proletarians is growing. The social base for the formation of the industrial bourgeoisie was mainly the merchants and wealthy peasants. It was from the peasant environment that Russian entrepreneurs of the late 19th and early 20th centuries emerged: the Morozovs, Prokhorovs, Guchkovs, Ryabushinskys, Konovalovs.

On the whole, in the post-reform era, the Russian economy retained clearly expressed features of a multi-structured structure: along with modern industry and agricultural commodity production, handicraft production and a patriarchal peasant economy existed to a large extent.

Social movement in the 60-80s

From the second half of the 50's. XIX century. the political regime is significantly softened. It was at this time that the concepts of "thaw" and "glasnost" appeared in the Russian political lexicon. Liberal reforms Alexander II contributed to the revitalization of the social_political movement. Some of its representatives, realizing the shortcomings and unfinished nature of the reforms, advocated further reforms in the country, the gradual peaceful evolution of the autocratic system into a constitutional constitutional state. K. D. Kavelin, A.M. Unkovsky, M.N. Katkov (then a liberal) and other liberal-minded public figures quite sharply opposed the government's measures slowing down the progress of reforms or leading to their curtailment. It was from among their supporters by the end of the nineteenth century. a broad zemstvo-noble liberal movement was formed, in opposition to the autocracy. Others, mainly representatives of the different ranks of the intelligentsia, feeling guilty for the lack of rights and oppression of the peasants, dissatisfied with the half-hearted and incomplete nature of the reforms, professing exaggerated ideas that the people accepted the reforms with hostility, increasingly inclined towards left radicalism, refusing any compromises with the authorities ...

In the mid 60's. XIX century. a number of circles arose among the students, propagandizing revolutionary ideas. One of the members of the Moscow circle N.A. Ishutin - D.V. Karakozov moved from words to deeds, having made an unsuccessful attempt on the life of Alexander II in 1866.

By this time, the leading revolutionary trend, populism, was taking shape. The foundations of the ideology of populism were set forth in the works of A.I. Herzen and N.G. Chernyshevsky in the middle of the century. By the 70's. populism developed into an integral doctrine. Its main provisions were as follows: denial of the domination of capitalism in Russia (its development was viewed as a regression); recognition of the originality of Russia, in particular its economic system; the peasant community was revered as the cell of the future socialist society; an immediate socialist coup was preached with reliance on the peasant community.

The main spiritual leaders of populism were M.A. Bakunin, P.L. Lavrov, P.N. Tkachev. Bakunin, the theorist of anarchism, opposed any state power, believing that the state is "a historically necessary evil" and the coming revolution should lead to the destruction of all forms of statehood. In the place of the state, a certain "great saving principle of federalism" should emerge. Bakunin believed that the instinct of freedom is inherent in the people; it is worth going to the people, uniting them - and then a "nationwide revolt" will take place, which will sweep away the tsarist regime.

P.L. Lavrov. He was convinced of the need to educate the people and prepare them for the revolution. Consequently, the main task of the revolutionary intelligentsia was to painstakingly prepare the people for the revolution.

P.N. Tkachev became the ideologue of conspiracy tactics. In his opinion, a small enough group of revolutionaries to seize power to carry out the necessary socialist transformations. Like Bakunin, Tkachev believed that the Russian peasant was a communist by instinct, by his way of life, therefore, it would be quite easy to carry out a revolutionary coup.

In the spring of 1874, members of various revolutionary circles, student youth of leftist convictions moved “to the people” (see “Walking to the People”). There was no single center of movement. It was the impulse, the desire of young people, under the influence of illegal literature, the propaganda activities of revolutionary circles, to rouse the peasants to revolution. However, the overwhelming majority of the peasantry did not understand what exactly the populists were promoting, so the peasants sometimes handed over young people to the police themselves. Due to the fact that the movement was completely unprepared, many of the Narodniks were arrested, and by the autumn "going to the people" ended in complete failure.

The largest illegal organization of populists of the 70's. XIX century. became "Land and Freedom", which arose in 1876 from the revolutionary circles of St. Petersburg. Its active members were A.D. Mikhailov. V.A. Osinsky, G.V. Plekhanov, N.A. Nathanson. Initially, the organization focused on propaganda work among peasants, the so-called sedentary propaganda. But the peasants, as before, treated the Narodniks with distrust. Gradually, the main activity of "Earth and Freedom" becomes "disorganizing work" (terror) against the authorities. In January 1878 V.I. Zasulich, committing an act of revenge, shot at the mayor of St. Petersburg F.F. Trepov (he ordered corporal punishment of a political prisoner). In August of the same year S.M. Kravchinsky stabbed the chief of gendarmes N.V. with a dagger. Mezentsev. In 1879 A.K. Soloviev unsuccessfully shot Alexander II. The assassination attempt by Zasulich, and especially the acquittal by the jury, were supported by wide public opinion. In general, terrorist acts did not receive direct support and approval in a significant part of society, but they did not evoke strong protest and sympathy from the authorities.

In "Land and Freedom" some members strove to activate terrorist activity (A.D. Mikhailov, N.A. Morozov), others (G.V. Plekhanov, M.R. Popov) considered the continuation of propaganda work to be the main thing. A split was brewing in the organization. In the summer of 1879, as a result of two congresses (in Lipetsk and St. Petersburg), no agreement was reached, and "Land and Freedom" split into "Black redistribution" and "Narodnaya Volya". The executive committee of Narodnaya Volya soon concentrated on preparing regicide. After a series of unsuccessful attempts on the life of the tsar and an explosion in the Winter Palace, the People's Will achieved their goal. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was mortally wounded. However, the revolutionary upsurge, as expected by the terrorists, did not happen. By this time, the forces of the organization were undermined, most of its active members were arrested. In 1884, Narodnaya Volya ceased to exist.

Labor movement

The development of capitalism in Russia during the period took place in "wild" forms. There was no labor legislation, the length of the working day was not regulated, safety precautions were not followed, the working and living conditions of workers were at an extremely low level. The presence of a large reserve army of labor led to the cheapness of labor. Naturally, the difficult material situation, the lack of rights, the tyranny of the entrepreneurs forced the workers to fight to improve their situation.

The first workers' performances date back to the 60's. XIX century. In the 70s the strike movement intensified. One of the largest strikes of the decade took place in 1872. About 6 thousand workers of the Krenholm manufactory went on strike in Narva. It was possible to end the strike only with the help of troops and a number of concessions to the workers. In 1885, the famous strike took place at the Nikolaev factory near Orekhov-Zuev, which went down in history as the Morozov strike. It should be noted that the working performances of the second half of the nineteenth v. were, as a rule, spontaneous and scattered, predominantly economic demands were put forward.

In the 1870s. workers' organizations are emerging, which, along with economic goals, set themselves political ones. The first such organization was the South Russian Workers' Union (1875). It was headed by E.O. Zaslavsky. The union did not last long, in December of the same year it was defeated by the police. In 1878, the “Northern Union of Russian Workers” was founded in St. Petersburg. This organization numbered about 200 people. Its leaders were V.P. Obnorsky and S.N. Khalturin. The Northern Union had a program and charter. He managed to illegally publish the only issue of the newspaper Rabochaya Zarya. In 1878, after the arrest of the leaders, the organization disintegrated. The first workers' organizations were under the ideological influence of populism.

The growth of the labor movement in the 80s. XIX century. forced the government to take the first steps in the design of labor legislation. In 1885, night work of adolescents and women was prohibited. The following year, a law was passed regulating fines against workers.

OPINIONS OF HISTORIANS

The reforms of the 1960s and 1970s were central to the pre-revolutionary historiography of the reign of Alexander II. XIX century. They were assessed positively by the majority of historians, characterized as liberal, and were called “great” in historical literature. The book by G.A. Dzhanshieva "The Epoch of Great Reforms", which went through 8 editions. K.D. Kavelin, V.O. Klyuchevsky, A.A. Kornilov, S.S. Tatishchev, B.N. Chicherin and many others. The most fundamental work in pre-revolutionary historiography, devoted directly to peasant reform, was the six-volume edition “ Great reform", In the writing of which the democratic-minded historians V.B. Bonch_Bruevich, S.P. Melgunov and others. Paying much attention to various aspects of peasant and other reforms, pre-revolutionary researchers practically did not consider such important question, as the course of implementation of reforms.

Soviet historiography characterized the transformations carried out in the 60s and 70s as a reaction to the deep crisis of the serf system, the growth of peasant uprisings, and called the reforms “bourgeois”. “Bourgeois” reforms were viewed by Soviet historians as an important stage in the transformation of feudal relations into capitalist ones. In the works of the Soviet period, much attention was paid to the analysis of the socio-economic situation in Russia on the eve of the abolition of serfdom, the half-heartedness and incompleteness of reforms, the development of the concept of a “revolutionary situation” in 1859-1861; attention was focused on the fact that the reforms were carried out by serfs. The largest Soviet researcher of the peasant reform was P.A. Zayonchkovsky, who, based on a wide range of sources in the monographs "The Abolition of Serfdom" and "Implementation of the Peasant Reform", significantly expanded the idea of ​​the preparation and implementation of the peasant reform, introduced new factual material into circulation.

Most modern historians view the reform activities of the government of Alexander II as a compromise in the context of the realization by the majority of the nobles of the futility and danger of following the old domestic and foreign policy course.

Counter-reforms of the 80's XIX century.

Having carried out the reforms of the 60's. XIX century., The government of Alexander II gradually begins to lean towards the tightening of the regime after the start of the Polish uprising and especially after 1866 (the first attempt on the tsar). A series of assassination attempts in the late 70's. forced the government to act more decisively. In 1880, the Supreme Administrative Commission was established, headed by M.T. Loris_Melikov. He receives extraordinary powers in the fight against terrorism and at the same time takes a number of measures to win public opinion. The government, considering that the absence of assassination attempts during almost the entire 1880 testifies to the end of the terror, at the end of the year the commission was dismissed. Loris_Melikov managed to convince Alexander of the need to meet liberal circles. On the morning of March 1, 1881, the tsar signed a project by Loris_Melikov on involving representatives of the zemstvo and city self-government in discussing projects of necessary reforms (the so-called "Constitution of Loris_Melikov"), and a few hours later Alexander II was killed.

Having survived the panic of the first days after the regicide, the new emperor Alexander III hesitated for some time between continuing his liberal policy and turning towards reaction. Under the influence of his mentor K.P. Tsar Pobedonostsev inclined towards the second path. The so-called era of counterreforms began (see Counterreforms in Russia), in contrast to the reforms of the 60s. The reactionary policy of the government of Alexander III affected all aspects of political and public life: administration, local government, the press, higher and secondary education. The policy of aggressive nationalism became more active, expressed primarily in the government's desire to Russify national minorities.

The government of Alexander III managed to temporarily stabilize political situation in the country, destroy the most active populist circles, and drive the rest of the political opposition into deep underground.

OPINIONS OF HISTORIANS

Most of his contemporaries who knew Alexander Alexandrovich closely, and pre-revolutionary historians, recognizing the tsar's small mental abilities, noted that he had common sense and a sense of responsibility for Russia, but at the same time some excessiveness and harshness of his domestic policy. In Soviet historiography, the reign of Alexander III was viewed as the time of the darkest reaction, the suppression of all free thinking, and the tsar himself was viewed as a stupid and limited "Derzhimorda". Modern historians explain the policy of counter-reforms of the government of Alexander III by the fact that, having started the reforms, the autocracy did not cope with their consequences, as well as the fear that certain concessions to the subjects would ultimately lead to the collapse of the autocracy (the latter, however, also applies to the policy of Alexander II ). But in today's historical literature one can also find a direct apologetics for the activities of Alexander III.

The spread of Marxism in Russia. 1st Congress of the RSDLP

After the split of the populist organization "Land and Freedom", one of its leaders, G.V. Plekhanov, headed the Black Redistribution group. In 1880 Plekhanov was forced to emigrate. Having become acquainted with the works of Karl Marx, which were then very popular in Europe, he became an active propagandist of his teachings. In 1883, with a group of like-minded people, Plekhanov founded the Marxist organization Emancipation of Labor in Geneva. The group saw its tasks in the dissemination of the teachings of Marx in Russia and the conduct of an ideological struggle against populism, placing a stake on the emerging proletariat, which it considered a revolutionary class.

With the development of capitalism, the growth of the labor movement and disillusionment with populism in Russia in the 80's. XIX century. the first social-democratic groups arose that took Marxist positions. In one of these groups in Kazan, V.I. Lenin. In 1895, in St. Petersburg, he and a group of comrades from disunited circles created the "Union of the Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class." In its activities, the Union tried to move from the propaganda of Marxism to agitation among the masses of the workers. He managed to establish contacts with the workers of a number of St. Petersburg enterprises. However, in December 1895, Lenin and other leaders of the Union were arrested, and the organization actually ceased to exist.

In 1898, the social_democratic groups of St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kiev, Yekaterinoslav gathered in Minsk and decided to create the Russian Social_Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP). Having proclaimed the creation of the party, the congress, however, did not work out its program and charter, failed to overcome the differences between individual groups. Thus, the question of creating a Social Democratic Party in Russia remained open.

Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the XIX century.

After the defeat in the Crimean War, foreign policy developed in two main directions: advancement to Asia and the restoration of positions in Europe (the struggle to abolish the humiliating conditions of the Paris Peace Treaty). The Minister of Foreign Affairs under Alexander II was one of the country's best diplomats, A.M. Gorchakov. Largely thanks to his efforts, it was possible to eliminate the articles of the Paris Treaty (1871) that were unfavorable for Russia. These events were associated with the rapprochement of Russia with Prussia and the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War. In 1873, Russia entered into an alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary (the Union of Three Emperors), which determined the European policy of Russia in the 70s. XIX century.

In 1864, a long Caucasian war In the early 60s, Russia continued its movement into the depths of Central Asia (the annexation of Kazakhstan, the Central Asian khanates), which led to a clash of interests of Russia and England in this region.

Since the mid 70's. the eastern question is again aggravated. This was due to the fact that Russia supported the liberation struggle of the Balkan peoples for independence, as well as the clash of interests of a number of European countries in this region. The brutal suppression of the uprising in Serbia by the Turks and Russia's own interests in the Balkans led to the fact that in April 1877 Russia declared war on Turkey. The war for Russia turned out to be unexpectedly difficult, but in the end Turkey was defeated. In the town of San_Stefano (1878), a peace treaty, beneficial for Russia and the Balkan peoples, was concluded. However, this provoked opposition from England and Austria_Hungary, who insisted on revising the conditions of the Treaty of San Stephen, which happened in the same year at the Berlin Congress. As a result, the territory of Bulgaria was reduced by three times, Austria occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina, and England, apparently for the support of Turkey, took the island of Cyprus from the Sultan. The unsuccessful peace treaty hit the patriotic feelings of Russian society.

The treacherous position of Austria-Hungary during the Russian-Turkish war and the lack of support from Germany at the congress in Berlin (already under Alexander III) led to the collapse of the Union of Three Emperors. After that, the rapprochement between Russia and France began, which served to form in 1891-1892. military_political union.

Personalities

Alexander II (1818-1881) - ascended to the Russian throne on February 19, 1855. He entered the history of Russia under the name of "Tsar-Liberator". He was inclined to think about the need for changes in Russia, he understood the importance of concessions, compromise in transforming the political and state structure... After the accession to the throne of Alexander II, the following progressive measures were taken: free travel abroad was allowed, the Decembrists and Petrashevists were amnestied, censorship of publications was lifted, and other liberal measures were taken. The emperor also took the problem of the abolition of serfdom very seriously. The government was forced to undertake reforms in Russia due to the growth of social instability, the activity of the lower classes and radical public figures. Under Alexander II, the Caucasian War was completed (1864). Turkestan became part of Russia, the borders of Russia and China along the Amur were secured. In 1877-1878. fought a war with Turkey, continuing his father's attempts to resolve the eastern issue. In foreign policy he was guided by Germany. In 1873 he concluded the Union of Three Emperors with Germany and Austria. In the context of the intensification of revolutionary terror, he created in 1880 the Supreme Administrative Commission. In the last years of his life, M.T. Loris_Melikov, who offered the tsar to continue the reforms. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was mortally wounded in St. Petersburg by the People's Will.

Reforms: peasant, zemstvo, city, judicial, in the army, in the press and educational institutions - were called "great". They brought the socio-political structure of Russia in line with the needs of the second half of the 19th century. The first step was taken towards the formation of the rule of law and civil society. Russia has entered a new, capitalist path of development.

Alexander III (1845-1894) - ascended the throne in 1881 after the death of his father Alexander II. His ideal was patriarchal rule, the unity of the emperor with the people, the maintenance of stable estates in society and national-unique development. A staunch supporter of the peaceful development of the country. The first measures taken by the new government continued the previous reform course; Mandatory land redemption was introduced, redemption payments were reduced, plans were developed to convene the Zemsky Sobor (1882), the Peasant Bank was established, the poll tax was abolished (1882), and benefits were provided to the Old Believers (1883). At the same time, the government defeated Narodnaya Volya.

With the advent of the leadership in the government, D.A. Tolstoy (1882), there was a change in the internal political course, which was based on the ideas of the "inviolability of autocracy": control over the press was strengthened, the nobility was given special rights in obtaining higher education, his socio-economic rights are protected, measures have been taken to preserve the peasant community. At the same time, reform efforts in the field of economics were continued. Nevertheless, in the sphere of culture, a course towards "national identity" was taken, the persecution of religious dissent, etc., intensified.

In the field of foreign policy, under Alexander III, Russia did not wage major wars (for which he was called "Tsar_Mirmaker"), but nevertheless it significantly expanded its borders in Central Asia. In European politics, Alexander III first continued the orientation of his grandfather and father towards an alliance with Germany and Austria (the development of the ideas and principles of the Union of the Three Emperors), and in 1893 he entered into an alliance with France.

Bakunin Mikhail Alexandrovich (1814-1876) - public figure, theorist of anarchism and revolutionary populism. Member of the revolution of 1848-1849. (Paris, Dresden, Prague), was arrested and extradited to the Russian authorities. He was imprisoned and exiled in Siberia (1851-1861). He fled abroad. After his escape he worked in the First International and was an ardent opponent of Marx. In 1872 he was expelled from the International.

Gorchakov Alexander Mikhailovich (1798-1883) - Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1856-1882, State Chancellor, His Serene Highness Prince. One of the largest diplomats of the 19th century, represented Russia at the Vienna Conference (1855), where, in the face of Russia's military defeat in the Crimean War, he staked on the collapse of the Anglo-French alliance. After the Paris Congress, he was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs, managed to destroy the united anti-Russian coalition of European powers. The result of this course was the rejection of the articles of the Paris Peace that were unfavorable to Russia immediately after the overthrow of Napoleon III. Gorchakov always opposed revolutionary upheavals (revolution of 1848 in France, Paris Commune and etc.). After creation German Empire became more careful in dealing with her. He played a significant role in the conclusion of the Union of Three Emperors in 1873, provided diplomatic preparation for the Russian-Turkish war (1877-1878). In 1875 Gorchakov's diplomatic position saved France from a new German aggression. During the Russian-Turkish war (1877-1878), he took an hesitant position, believing that Russia was not yet ready to seize Constantinople and the war could only lead to an aggravation of international relations. This position largely determined the decline in Gorchakov's popularity. In 1882 he was forced to retire.

Zhelyabov Andrei Ivanovich (1851-1881) - revolutionary_popular. One of the founders and leaders of the "Narodnaya Volya" organization (1879). Organizer of attempts on the life of Emperor Alexander II. Executed on April 3, 1881 in St. Petersburg in the process of "First Martyrs".

Zaslavsky Evgeny Osipovich (1844 / 45-1878) - organizer and leader of the "South Russian Union of Workers" in Odessa. He promoted socialist ideas among the workers. He was arrested and sentenced to 10 years in hard labor.

Zasulich Vera Ivanovna (1849-1919) - a public figure, a revolutionary-people. In 1878, an attempt was made on the life of the St. Petersburg mayor F.F. Trepova. She was the organizer and member of the Black Redistribution group. In 1883 she switched to the position of Marxism. One of the founders of the Emancipation of Labor group. From 1903 she was a Menshevik.

Lavrov Petr Lavrovich (1823-1900) - public figure, ideologist of revolutionary populism, the so-called propaganda direction. Since 1870 - in exile.

Lanskoy Sergei Stepanovich (1787-1862) - statesman, for a short time was a member of the Union of Welfare, Minister of Internal Affairs (1855-1861), one of the leaders of the preparation of the peasant reform.

Lenin (Ulyanov) Vladimir Ilyich (1870-1924) - politician. Brother of the People's Will A.I. Ulyanov, executed for the attempt on the life of Alexander III in 1887. For participation in student riots in 1887, he was expelled from the first year of Kazan University. In 1891 he passed the exams for the course of the Faculty of Law at St. Petersburg University; Assistant attorney at law in Samara. In the late 1880s - early 1890s. - Member of the Narodnaya Volya circles, then a Marxist. In 1895 he took part in the creation of the St. Petersburg Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class, and was arrested. In 1897 he was exiled for three years to the village of Shushenskoye, Yenisei province. In 1900 he went abroad. Together with G.V. Plekhanov began publishing the newspaper Iskra. At the Second Congress of the RSDLP (1903) he headed the Bolshevik faction. For many years spent in exile, he was engaged in professional revolutionary activities. He created a "new type" party aimed at preparing and carrying out the socialist revolution in Russia. In April 1917, having arrived in Petrograd, in the "April Theses" he proclaimed a course towards a socialist revolution. After the July 1917 crisis, he was in an illegal position. He headed the leadership of the October uprising in Petrograd. At the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets, he was elected Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars, since 1918 simultaneously Chairman of the Council of Workers 'and Peasants' Defense (since 1919 - the Council of Labor and Defense), a member of the Central Executive Committee and the Central Executive Committee of the USSR. Played a decisive role in the conclusion Brest Peace... He pursued a policy of red terror, "war communism", initiated the liquidation of opposition parties and their press organs (which led to the emergence of a one-party system), expulsion from the country of prominent representatives of the intelligentsia who did not agree with the policy of the Bolshevik government, repressions against "socially alien elements" ( nobility, clergy, etc.). In 1922 he fell seriously ill, since December he did not participate in political activities.

Lenin took the positions of radical Marxism, believing that, despite the immaturity of capitalist relations, Russia was ready to move along the path of socialist construction, and tried to put these ideas into practice. He was an active party publicist, wrote a huge number of books and articles on the strategy and tactics of the Bolshevik Party.

Loris_Melikov Mikhail Tarielovich (1825-1888) - statesman, adjutant general, participant in the Russian_Turkish wars (1853-1856 and 1877-1878). From 1880 - Minister of Internal Affairs and Chief of the Gendarmes, waged a merciless struggle against the revolutionaries. He presented to Alexander II a report in which he proposed to carry out a number of economic reforms. After the assassination of Alexander II and the publication by Alexander III of the Manifesto on the strengthening of the autocracy, he resigned.

Milyutin Dmitry Alekseevich (1816-1912) - statesman, count (1878), Field Marshal (1898), professor at the Military Academy. In 1861-1881. - Minister of War. He carried out reforms in the army.

Milyutin Nikolai Alekseevich (1818-1872) - statesman, assistant minister of internal affairs in 1859-1861, the actual leader of the preparation of the peasant reform. Brother D.A. Milyutin.

Nechaev Sergei Gennadievich (1847-1882) - organizer secret society"People's Repression" (1869), author of the "Catechism of the Revolutionary". He used methods of hoax and provocation. In 1873 he was sentenced to 20 years in hard labor. He died in the Peter and Paul Fortress.

Obnorsky Viktor Pavlovich (1851-1919) - locksmith, one of the organizers of the "Northern Union of Russian Workers". Arrested and sentenced to 10 years in hard labor.

Perovskaya Sophia Lvovna (1853-1881) - participant revolutionary movement... She was born into an aristocratic family. In 1869 she entered the women's courses in St. Petersburg, since 1871 - a member of the "Tchaikovsky" circle. In 1872-1873 and 1874-1877. participated in "going to the people" as a teacher and paramedic. She was tried in the "193_x" trial, but was acquitted. In 1878 she was arrested and sent into exile in the Olonets province, but fled on the way and became illegal. Since the fall of 1879 - a member of the Executive Committee of the "People's Will". Participated in a number of attempts on the life of Alexander II. After the arrest of Zhelyabova, she led the preparation of the assassination of Alexander II on March 1, 1881. Executed on April 15, 1881.

Rostovtsev Yakov Ivanovich (1803 / 04-1860) - statesman, chairman of the editorial commissions for drawing up the Regulations on the peasants. In December 1825 he reported to Nicholas I about the plans of the Northern Society.

Tkachev Petr Nikitich (1844-1885 / 86) - a native of the Pskov nobles; the ideologist of the conspiratorial trend in revolutionary populism. The younger contemporary of M.A. Bakunin and P.L. Lavrov, shared their faith in socialism, but on all other issues waged an irreconcilable struggle with them. Convicted in the case of S.G. Nechaev, he served his sentence, then he was exiled to the Pskov province. From there he fled abroad, where he published the newspaper "Nabat". Tkachev believed that a strong centralized state would remain after the victory of the revolution. In 1882 he developed a mental breakdown and died three years later.

Khalturin Stepan Nikolaevich (1856 / 57-1882) - one of the organizers of the "Northern Union of Russian Workers". After the defeat of the Union, he went to the People's Will and organized an explosion in the Winter Palace. Executed for participating in the murder of the Odessa military prosecutor.

Chernyshevsky Nikolai Gavrilovich (1828-1889) - public figure, literary critic, writer; in 1856-1862 one of the directors of the Sovremennik magazine. The ideological inspirer of the revolutionary organization "Land and Freedom". Arrested in 1862. Sentenced to Siberian hard labor. Released from exile in 1883

The culture of Russia in the second half of the 19th century experienced a significant rise. The development of new capitalist relations, the abolition of serfdom and social upsurge led to the fact that in all spheres of art began to appear new trends, new names.

However, representatives of the intelligentsia had a variety of views on the changes taking place in the country, which led to the emergence of three camps - liberals, conservatives and democrats. Each trend had its own characteristics, both in political thought and in the ways of expressing oneself in art.

In general, the industrial revolution and economic growth have led to the fact that culture has become more democratic and open to all segments of the population.

Education

There has been an unprecedented rise in the level of education. Numerous schools began to open, education became level-wise - elementary School and average. The middle schools included numerous gymnasiums and schools, where students not only received general education, but also mastered the necessary further work knowledge. Courses for women have appeared.

Education remained paid, so libraries and museums began to gain more and more importance, where those who did not have money for a lyceum or gymnasium could acquire knowledge. The Tretyakov Gallery, Historical Museum, Russian Museum and others were created.

Science was also actively developing, several scientific schools were created, which became the foundation for the most important discoveries. History and philosophy have undergone tremendous development.

Literature

Literature developed as actively as other branches of culture. Numerous literary journals began to appear throughout the country, in which the writers published their works. The most notable ones are Russkiy Vestnik, Otechestvennye Zapiski, and Russian Thought. The magazines were of different directions - liberal, democratic and conservative. In addition to literary activity the authors in them led an active political discussion.

Painting

The realist artists E.I. Repin and V.I. Surikov, A.G. Savrasov. Led by IN Kramskoy, they formed the "Association of the Wanderers", which sets as its main goal the need to "bring art to the masses." These artists opened small traveling exhibitions in the most remote corners of Russia in order to accustom people to art.

Music

The group "Mighty Handful" was formed, headed by M.A. Balakirev. It included many prominent composers of that time - M.P. Mussorgsky, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, A.P. Borodin. At the same time, the great composer P.I. Tchaikovsky. In those years, the first conservatories in Russia were opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Music also became a national treasure, accessible to all segments of the population.

Queen Isabella's reign

Young Isabella, proclaimed monarch of Spain in 1833, received full rights at the age of 13. In 1843 she was declared an adult. The Queen did not strive for state power, she was fond of music and riding in open carriages. Instead, the generals ruled the country:

• first General Ramon Narvaez,
• later General Leopoldo O * Donnell.

Therefore, the period from 1843 to 1868 went down in the history of Spain as a general's regime.

Under Isabella, Spain was guided by a rapprochement with England and France. Together with Portugal, the monarchies formed the Quadruple Alliance as opposed to the restoration of the Holy Alliance. In domestic politics, the queen gave preference to moderados, with little regard for progressives. The 1845 constitution provided the monarch with additional leverage over the Cortes. But the instability of the government was expressed in its frequent change, in total during the reign of Isabella, the government changed 33 times.

"Isabelline era" brought some recovery to the Spanish economy. The mining and metallurgical industries developed, the textile industry progressed, and a boom in railway construction began. By the end of the Queen's reign, 3,600 kilometers of railroad tracks had been built. But the country was still agrarian. Has undergone changes social structure population. The financial-industrial and military aristocracy is coming to the fore, pushing back the clergy and nobility. The Queen everywhere demonstrated support for capitalist transformations and the modernization of the country.

Remark 1

The low level of well-being of the common people led to the fall of Isabella's authority and her flight to France. There she was received by Napoleon III. Isabella II lived in this political asylum until her death in 1904.

Spain during the reign of the kings of the Savoy dynasty

From 1868 to 1874, Spain is called the "democratic sixth year". After the queen's flight, the Constituent Cortes were convened and drafted a new Constitution of 1869. She provided electoral rights to citizens from the age of 25, legalized the principle of separation of powers. The Cortes were to choose a new monarch. Three main candidates were rejected by the head of the Cabinet of Ministers, General Prim:

1. son of Isabella II Alphonse;
2. grandson of Don Carlos the Elder, Carlos the Younger;
3. Duke of Montpensier of Orleans.

The three-party bloc of liberals elected Amadeus of Savoy as king. The reign of the new king began on November 16, 1870 and lasted a little over two years. In February 1873 he abdicated and Spain became a republic. The first republic brought chaos to Spain: a civil war, an intensification of the Carlists, an economic crisis, an exacerbation of Spanish-Cuban relations, an epidemic of plague and famine. It was decided to restore the Bourbons on the Spanish throne, and Alphonse XII, the son of Isabella II, became king.

Restored Bourbon rule

Alphonse XII (reigned from 184 to 1885) began his reign with the defeat of the Carlist rebellion. Following the end of the civil war, the colonial war with Cuba. Alphonse was nicknamed the Peacemaker. Alphonse XII, together with A. Canovas del Castillo, tried to build a constitutional monarchy in Spain on the model of the English one. Kanolvas founded and headed the Conservative Party, the publicist Sagasta - the opposition Liberal Party. During these years, Kasikism became widespread.

Definition 1

Kasikism is an electoral system that covers the arbitrariness of local leaders. The Kasiki ensured the passage of the necessary deputies to the Cortes through falsification of elections, bribery and intimidation of voters.

The death of the king led to a new dynastic crisis. Six months after the death of Alphonse XII, his son and heir Alphonse XIII was born. Until he came of age in 1902, the country was ruled by his mother, Maria-Christina. By the end of the 19th century, Spain came up with negative results: all overseas colonies were rejected as a result of defeat in the Spanish-American War of 1898.