Campaigns of Tuthmosis 3. Military campaigns of Tuthmosis III

The period of the reign of Catherine II in Russia (1762 - 1796) was a time of great changes and significant events in the life of the people.

Future Russian empress, née Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst first came to Russia in 1745 at the invitation of Elizabeth. In the same year, she married the Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich (Peter 3). The dislike of her husband and Elizabeth's illness led to a situation where there was a threat of her expulsion from Russia. Relying on the guards regiments, in 1762 she made a bloodless coup and became the empress. In such conditions, the reign of Catherine II began.

The empress carried out active reform activities, seeking to strengthen her personal power. In 1767, he convened a Commission to write a new code. The Assembly of Legislators, however, turned out to be objectionable and was dissolved.

In 1763, to improve the system of government, she carried out a senatorial reform. There were six departments in the Senate and he lost the right to lead the state apparatus, becoming the highest judicial and administrative body. The Berg Collegium, the Chief Magistrate and the Manufacturing Collegium were restored. The centralization of the country and the bureaucratization of power proceeded in parallel at a steady pace. To resolve financial difficulties in 1763-1764, Catherine carried out (transferring them to secular property), which made it possible to replenish the treasury and neutralize the clergy as a powerful political force.

The reign of Catherine II was not soft. During her reign, the Peasant War of 1773-1775 had shown that this stratum of society did not support her. And Catherine decides to strengthen the absolutist state, relying only on the nobility.

"Letters of gratitude" to the nobility and cities (1785) streamlined the structure of society, strictly indicating the closedness of the estates: the nobility, clergy, merchants, philistines and serfs. The dependence of the latter constantly increased, creating conditions for the onset of the "noble golden age".

During the reign of Catherine II, the feudal system reached its apogee in Russia. The Empress did not seek to change the foundations of social life. An empire based on the labor of serfs, the throne's reliance on the loyal nobility and the wise empress who ruled over all - this is how the life of the country looked during this period. Domestic and foreign policies were pursued exclusively in the interests of the Imperial approach was inherent in relation to the provinces (Little Russia, Livonia and Finland), and the expansion also extended to the Crimea, the Kingdom of Poland, the North Caucasus, where national problems had already begun to aggravate. In 1764, the hetmanate in Ukraine was liquidated, and the governor-general and president of the Maloros Collegium were appointed to rule it.

In 1775, a management reform was initiated. Instead of 23 provinces, 50 new ones were created. The Treasury Chamber was in charge of industry, the Order was in charge of public institutions (hospitals and schools), the courts were separated from the administration. The system of government of the country became uniform, subordinate to the governors, central colleges, governors and, finally, the empress.

It is known that the reign of Catherine II is also the height of favoritism. But if under Elizabeth this phenomenon did not bring tangible harm to the state, now the wide distribution of state lands and the nobles fit for the empress began to cause discontent.

Catherine is the time of the implementation of the ideas of socio-political theories of the 18th century, according to which the development of society should proceed in an evolutionary way under the leadership of an enlightened and beloved monarch, whose assistants are philosophers.

The results of the reign of Catherine II are very significant for Russian history. The territory of the state has grown significantly, treasury revenues have quadrupled, and the population has grown by 75%. However, enlightened absolutism could not solve all the pressing problems.

Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born on April 21 (May 2), 1729 in the German Pomeranian city of Stettin (now Szczecin in Poland). My father came from the Zerbst-Dornburg line of the Anhalt house and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, ran for the Dukes of Courland, but unsuccessfully, finished his service as a Prussian field marshal. Mother - from the Holstein-Gottorp clan, was the great-aunt of the future Peter III. Maternal uncle Adolf-Friedrich (Adolf Fredrik) from 1751 was king of Sweden (elected heir in the city). The family tree of Catherine II's mother goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and the founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.

Childhood, education and upbringing

The family of the Duke of Zerbst was not rich, Catherine received home education... She studied German and French, dance, music, the basics of history, geography, theology. She was brought up in severity. She grew up inquisitive, inclined to outdoor games, persistent.

Ekaterina continues to educate herself. She reads books on history, philosophy, jurisprudence, works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Tacitus, Beyle, a large number of other literature. The main entertainment for her was hunting, horse riding, dancing and masquerades. The lack of conjugal relations with the Grand Duke contributed to the appearance of lovers for Catherine. Meanwhile, Empress Elizabeth expressed her dissatisfaction with the absence of children from the spouses.

Finally, after two unsuccessful pregnancies, on September 20 (October 1), 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son, who was immediately taken away from her, called Paul (the future Emperor Paul I) and deprived of the opportunity to educate, but only occasionally allowed to see. A number of sources claim that the true father of Paul was Catherine's lover S.V. Saltykov. Others - that such rumors are groundless, and that Peter underwent an operation that eliminated the defect that made conception impossible. The question of paternity aroused public interest as well.

After the birth of Paul, relations with Peter and Elizabeth Petrovna finally deteriorated. Peter openly made mistresses, however, without hindering Catherine from doing this, who during this period had a connection with Stanislav Poniatowski, the future king of Poland. On December 9 (20), 1758, Catherine gave birth to her daughter Anna, which aroused strong discontent with Peter, who said at the news of a new pregnancy: “God knows where my wife is getting pregnant; I don’t know for sure whether this child is mine and whether I should recognize him as mine ”. At this time, the condition of Elizaveta Petrovna worsened. All this made real the prospect of Catherine's expulsion from Russia or her imprisonment in a monastery. The situation was aggravated by the fact that Catherine's secret correspondence with the disgraced Field Marshal Apraksins and the British Ambassador Williams was revealed. political issues... Her previous favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov, Dashkova and others.

The death of Elizabeth Petrovna (December 25, 1761 (January 5, 1762)) and the accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name of Peter III further alienated the spouses. Peter III began to live openly with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace. When Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, this could no longer be explained by accidental conception from her husband, since the communication of the spouses had completely ceased by that time. Catherine hid her pregnancy, and when it came time to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Grigorievich Shkurin set fire to his house. A lover of such spectacles, Peter with the courtyard left the palace to look at the fire; at this time, Catherine successfully gave birth. So the first in Russia Count Bobrinsky was born - the founder of the famous surname.

Coup on June 28, 1762

1. It is necessary to educate the nation, which should be governed.
2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, to support society and force it to comply with the laws.
3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect for its neighbors.

The policy of Catherine II was characterized by progressive, without sharp hesitation, development. After accession to the throne, she carried out a number of reforms (judicial, administrative, etc.). The territory of the Russian state increased significantly due to the annexation of fertile southern lands - Crimea, the Black Sea region, as well as the eastern part of the Commonwealth, etc. The population increased from 23.2 million (in 1763) to 37.4 million (in 1796), Russia became the most populous European country (it accounted for 20% of the population of Europe). As Klyuchevsky wrote, “The army from 162 thousand people was strengthened to 312 thousand, the fleet, which in 1757 consisted of 21 battleships and 6 frigates, in 1790 included 67 battleships and 40 frigates, the amount of state revenues from 16 million rubles. rose to 69 million, that is, more than quadrupled, the success of foreign trade: Baltic; in the increase in import and export, from 9 million to 44 million rubles., Black Sea, Catherine and created, - from 390 thousand in 1776 to 1900 thousand rubles. in 1796, the growth of internal turnover was indicated by the issue of coins in the 34 years of the reign for 148 million rubles, while in the 62 preceding years it was issued only for 97 million. "

The Russian economy continued to be agrarian. The share of the urban population in 1796 was 6.3%. At the same time, a number of cities were founded (Tiraspol, Grigoriopol, etc.), pig iron smelting increased more than 2 times (in which Russia took 1st place in the world), and the number of sail-linen manufactories increased. In total, by the end of the 18th century. there were 1200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were 663 of them). The export of Russian goods to European countries has significantly increased, including through the created Black Sea ports.

Domestic policy

Catherine's adherence to the ideas of the Enlightenment determined the nature of her domestic policy and the direction of reforming various institutions of the Russian state. The term "enlightened absolutism" is often used to characterize the internal politics of Catherine's time. According to Catherine, based on the works of the French philosopher Montesquieu, the vast Russian spaces and the severity of the climate determine the regularity and necessity of autocracy in Russia. Proceeding from this, under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the management system was unified.

Stacked commission

An attempt was made to convene the Legislated Commission, which would systematize the laws. The main goal is to clarify the needs of the people in order to carry out comprehensive reforms.

More than 600 deputies took part in the commission, 33% of them were elected from the nobility, 36% from the townspeople, which also included nobles, 20% from the rural population (state peasants). The interests of the Orthodox clergy were represented by a deputy from the Synod.

As a guiding document of the Commission of 1767, the Empress prepared the "Order" - a theoretical foundation of enlightened absolutism.

The first meeting was held in the Faceted Chamber in Moscow

Due to the conservatism of the deputies, the Commission had to be disbanded.

Soon after the coup, the statesman N.I. Panin proposed to create an Imperial Council: 6 or 8 higher dignitaries rule together with the monarch (as was the standard of 1730). Ekaterina rejected this project.

According to another project of Panin, the Senate was transformed - on December 15. 1763 It was divided into 6 departments, headed by chief prosecutors, at the head was the prosecutor general. Each department had specific powers. The general powers of the Senate were reduced, in particular, it lost the legislative initiative and became a body for control over the activities of the state apparatus and the highest court. The center of legislative activity moved directly to Ekaterina and her office with state secretaries.

Provincial reform

7 nov. In 1775, the "Institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire" was adopted. Instead of a three-tier administrative division - a province, a province, a district, a two-tier one began to operate - a province, a district (which was based on the principle of the size of the taxable population). Out of the previous 23 provinces, 50 were formed, each of which had a population of 300-400 thousand dm. Provinces were divided into 10-12 counties, each with 20-30 thousand dm.

Thus, the further need to preserve the presence of the Zaporozhye Cossacks in their historical homeland to protect the southern Russian borders disappeared. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the Russian authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, as well as in connection with the support of the Pugachev uprising by the Cossacks, Catherine II ordered the disbanding of the Zaporizhzhya Sich, which was done by order of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks by General Peter Tekeli in June 1775.

The Sich was bloodlessly disbanded, and then the fortress itself was destroyed. Most of the Cossacks were disbanded, but after 15 years they were remembered and the Army of the Faithful Zaporozhians was created, later the Black Sea Cossack army, and in 1792 Catherine signed a manifesto that gives them the Kuban for eternal use, where the Cossacks moved, founding the city of Yekaterinodar.

The reforms on the Don created a military civilian government modeled on the provincial administrations of central Russia.

The beginning of the annexation of the Kalmyk Khanate

As a result of general administrative reforms of the 70s, aimed at strengthening the state, it was decided to annex the Kalmyk Khanate to the Russian Empire.

By her decree of 1771, Catherine liquidated the Kalmyk Khanate, thereby starting the process of annexing the Kalmyk state to Russia, which had previously had a vassal relationship with the Russian state. A special Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, established at the office of the Astrakhan governor, began to be in charge of Kalmyk affairs. Under the rulers of the uluses, bailiffs were appointed from among Russian officials. In 1772, at the Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, a Kalmyk court - Zargo was established, consisting of three members - one representative each from three main uluses: torgouts, derbets and khoshouts.

This decision of Catherine was preceded by the empress's consistent policy to limit the khan's power in the Kalmyk Khanate. So, in the 60s, the crisis intensified in the khanate associated with the colonization of Kalmyk lands by Russian landowners and peasants, the reduction of pasture land, the infringement of the rights of the local feudal elite, the interference of tsarist officials in Kalmyk affairs. After the establishment of the fortified Tsaritsyn line, thousands of Don Cossack families began to settle in the area of ​​the main Kalmyk nomads, and cities and fortresses began to be built throughout the Lower Volga. The best pasture lands were allocated for arable land and hayfields. The nomadic area was constantly narrowing, which in turn exacerbated internal relations in the khanate. The local feudal elite was also dissatisfied with the missionary activity of the Russian Orthodox Church to Christianize nomads, as well as the outflow of people from uluses to cities and villages to work. Under these conditions, among the Kalmyk noyons and zaisangs, with the support of the Buddhist Church, a conspiracy has matured with the aim of leaving the people for their historical homeland - in Dzungaria.

On January 5, 1771, the Kalmyk feudal lords, dissatisfied with the policy of the empress, raised the uluses that roamed along the left bank of the Volga, and set off on a dangerous journey to Central Asia. Back in November 1770, the army was assembled on the left bank under the pretext of repelling the raids of the Kazakhs of the Younger Zhuz. The bulk of the Kalmyk population lived at that time on the meadow side of the Volga. Many noyons and zaisangs, realizing the disaster of the campaign, wanted to stay with their uluses, but the army coming from behind was driving everyone forward. This tragic campaign turned into a terrible disaster for the people. A small Kalmyk ethnos lost on the way about 100,000 people killed in battles, from wounds, cold, hunger, disease, as well as prisoners, lost almost all livestock - the main wealth of the people. ,,.

These tragic events in the history of the Kalmyk people are reflected in the poem by Sergei Yesenin "Pugachev".

Regional reform in Estonia and Livonia

Baltics as a result of regional reform in 1782-1783 was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. In Estland and Livonia, a special Baltic order was abolished, which provided for more extensive rights of local nobles to work and the personality of a peasant than that of Russian landowners.

Provincial reform in Siberia and the Middle Volga region

Under the new protectionist tariff of 1767, the import of those goods that were or could be produced within Russia was completely prohibited. Duties from 100 to 200% were imposed on luxury goods, wine, grain, toys ... Export duties amounted to 10-23% of the value of imported goods.

In 1773, Russia exported goods worth 12 million rubles, which was 2.7 million rubles more than imports. In 1781, exports already amounted to 23.7 million rubles against 17.9 million rubles of imports. Russian merchant ships began sailing in the Mediterranean as well. Thanks to the policy of protectionism in 1786, the country's exports amounted to 67.7 million rubles, and imports - 41.9 million rubles.

At the same time, Russia under Catherine went through a number of financial crises and was forced to make foreign loans, the amount of which by the end of the empress's reign exceeded 200 million silver rubles.

Social politics

Moscow Orphanage

In the provinces there were orders of public charity. In Moscow and St. Petersburg - Orphanages for street children (currently, the building of the Moscow Orphanage occupies Military Academy them. Peter the Great), where they received education and upbringing. The Widows Treasury was created to help widows.

Compulsory smallpox vaccination was introduced, and Catherine was the first to receive such a vaccination. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to acquire the character of state measures that were directly part of the responsibilities of the Imperial Council and the Senate. By order of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only at the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The "Charter of Border and Port Quarantines" was created.

New directions of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and orphanages were opened. A number of fundamental works on medicine have been published.

National policy

After the annexation of the lands that had previously been part of the Commonwealth to the Russian Empire, about a million Jews turned out to be in Russia - a people with a different religion, culture, way of life and way of life. To prevent their resettlement to the central regions of Russia and attach them to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II in 1791 established the Pale of Settlement, outside of which Jews had no right to live. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where the Jews had lived before - on the the result of three partitions of Poland lands, as well as in the steppe regions of the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy removed all restrictions on living. It is noted that the Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity, the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

Having ascended the throne, Catherine canceled the decree of Peter III on the secularization of lands near the church. But already in February. 1764 again issued a decree depriving the Church of land ownership. Monastic peasants numbering about 2 million people. of both sexes were removed from the jurisdiction of the clergy and transferred to the management of the College of Economics. The jurisdiction of the state included the estates of churches, monasteries and bishops.

In Ukraine, the secularization of monastic possessions was carried out in 1786.

Thus, the clergy became dependent on the secular authorities, since they could not carry out independent economic activities.

Catherine achieved from the government of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth an equalization in the rights of religious minorities - Orthodox and Protestants.

Under Catherine II, the persecution ceased Old Believers... The Empress initiated the return from abroad of the Old Believers, the economically active population. They were specially assigned a place on the Irgiz (modern Saratov and Samara regions). They were allowed to have priests.

The free resettlement of Germans to Russia led to a significant increase in the number of Protestants(mostly Lutherans) in Russia. They were also allowed to build churches, schools, and freely perform divine services. At the end of the 18th century, there were more than 20 thousand Lutherans in St. Petersburg alone.

Expanding the boundaries of the Russian Empire

Partitions of Poland

Part federal state The Commonwealth included Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine and Belarus.

The reason for the interference in the affairs of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the question of the position of dissidents (that is, the non-Catholic minority - Orthodox and Protestants), so that they were equalized with the rights of Catholics. Catherine exerted strong pressure on the gentry in order to elect her protege Stanislav August Poniatowski to the Polish throne, who was elected. Part of the Polish gentry opposed these decisions and organized an uprising in the Bar Confederation. It was suppressed by Russian troops in alliance with the Polish king. In 1772, Prussia and Austria, fearing the strengthening of Russian influence in Poland and its successes in the war with the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), offered Catherine to partition the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in exchange for ending the war, otherwise threatening a war against Russia. Russia, Austria and Prussia brought in their troops.

In 1772 the 1st section of the Commonwealth... Austria received all of Galicia with its districts, Prussia - West Prussia (Pomorie), Russia - the eastern part of Belarus to Minsk (Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces) and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia.

The Polish Sejm was forced to agree with the partition and abandon claims to the lost territories: it lost 3,800 km² with a population of 4 million people.

Polish nobles and industrialists contributed to the adoption of the Constitution of 1791. The conservative part of the population of the Targovitsa Confederation turned to Russia for help.

In 1793 the 2nd section of the Commonwealth, approved at the Grodno Sejm. Prussia received Gdansk, Torun, Poznan (part of the land along the Warta and Vistula rivers), Russia - Central Belarus with Minsk and the Right-Bank Ukraine.

The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories of Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, Ushakov, and the establishment of Russia in the Black Sea. As a result, they ceded to Russia the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, the Kuban region, strengthened its political positions in the Caucasus and the Balkans, and strengthened Russia's authority on the world stage.

Relations with Georgia. Georgievsky treatise

Georgievsky treatise of 1783

Catherine II and the Georgian tsar Irakli II in 1783 concluded the Georgievsky treatise, according to which Russia established a protectorate over the Kartli-Kakhetian kingdom. The treaty was concluded in order to protect Orthodox Georgians, since Muslim Iran and Turkey threatened the national existence of Georgia. Russian government took Eastern Georgia under its patronage, guaranteed its autonomy and protection in case of war, and during peace negotiations pledged to insist on the return to the Kartli-Kakhetian kingdom of possessions that had long belonged to it and illegally taken away by Turkey.

The result of the Georgian policy of Catherine II was a sharp weakening of the positions of Iran and Turkey, which formally destroyed their claims to Eastern Georgia.

Relations with Sweden

Taking advantage of the fact that Russia entered the war with Turkey, Sweden, supported by Prussia, Britain and Holland, unleashed a war with her for the return of previously lost territories. The troops that entered the territory of Russia were stopped by General-in-Chief V.P. Musin-Pushkin. After a series of naval battles that did not have a decisive outcome, Russia defeated the Swedish line fleet in the battle at Vyborg, but because of the oncoming storm it suffered a heavy defeat in the battle of rowing fleets at Rochensalm. The parties signed the Verela Peace Treaty in 1790, according to which the border between the countries did not change.

Relations with other countries

After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms. " However, in reality, she withdrew from participation in hostilities against France. According to popular belief, one of the real reasons for the creation of the anti-French coalition was to divert the attention of Prussia and Austria from Polish affairs. At the same time, Catherine refused all the agreements concluded with France, ordered to expel all suspected sympathizers for the French Revolution from Russia, and in 1790 issued a decree on the return of all Russians from France.

During the reign of Catherine, the Russian Empire acquired the status of a "great power". As a result of the two successful Russian-Turkish wars of 1768-1774 and 1787-1791 for Russia. the Crimean peninsula and the entire territory of the Northern Black Sea region were annexed to Russia. In 1772-1795. Russia took part in three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as a result of which it annexed the territories of present-day Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland. The Russian Empire also included Russian America - Alaska and the West coast of the North American continent (the current state of California).

Catherine II as a figure of the Age of Enlightenment

Ekaterina - writer and publisher

Catherine belonged to a small number of monarchs who would communicate so intensively and directly with their subjects by drawing up manifestos, instructions, laws, polemical articles and indirectly in the form of satirical works, historical dramas and pedagogical opuses. In her memoirs, she confessed: "I cannot see a blank pen without not feeling the urge to immediately dip it in ink."

She possessed an extraordinary talent as a writer, leaving behind a large collection of works - notes, translations, librettos, fables, fairy tales, comedy "Oh, time!", "The name day of Mrs. Vorchalkina", "Front of a noble boyar", "Lady Vestnikova with her family", "The Invisible Bride" (-), essays, etc., participated in the weekly satirical magazine "Anything and everything", published in the city. The Empress turned to journalism in order to influence public opinion, so the main idea of ​​the magazine was to criticize human vices and weaknesses ... Other subjects of irony were the superstitions of the population. Catherine herself called the magazine: "Satire in a smiling spirit."

Ekaterina - philanthropist and collector

Development of culture and art

Catherine considered herself a "philosopher on the throne" and favored the European Enlightenment, was in correspondence with Voltaire, Diderot, d "Alambert.

Under her, the Hermitage and the Public Library appeared in St. Petersburg. She patronized various fields of art - architecture, music, painting.

It is impossible not to mention the mass settlement of German families in various regions of modern Russia, Ukraine, as well as the Baltic countries, initiated by Catherine. The goal was to "infect" Russian science and culture with European ones.

Courtyard of the times of Catherine II

Features of personal life

Ekaterina was a brunette of average height. She combined high intelligence, education, statesmanship and commitment to "free love".

Catherine is known for her connections with numerous lovers, the number of which (according to the list of the authoritative Catherine scholar P.I.Bartenev) reaches 23. The most famous of them were Sergei Saltykov, G.G. Orlov (later Count), Horse Guards Lieutenant Vasilchikov, G.A. Potemkin (later prince), hussar Zorich, Lanskoy, the last favorite was the cornet Platon Zubov, who became the count of the Russian Empire and a general. With Potemkin, according to some sources, Catherine was secretly married (). After she planned a marriage with Orlov, however, on the advice of those close to her, she abandoned this idea.

It is worth noting that Catherine's "debauchery" was not such a scandalous phenomenon against the background of the general licentiousness of the 18th century. Most kings (with the possible exception of Frederick the Great, Louis XVI and Charles XII) had numerous mistresses. Catherine's favorites (with the exception of Potemkin, who possessed state abilities) did not influence politics. Nevertheless, the institution of favoritism had a negative effect on the higher nobility, which sought benefits through flattery to a new favorite, tried to lead “their own man” into lovers to the empress, and so on.

Catherine had two sons: Pavel Petrovich () (it is suspected that his father was Sergei Saltykov) and Alexei Bobrinsky (- the son of Grigory Orlov) and two daughters: Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna (1757-1759, who died in infancy, possibly the daughter of the future king) Poland Stanislav Ponyatovsky) and Elizaveta Grigorievna Tyomkina (- Potemkin's daughter).

Famous figures of Catherine's era

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the fruitful activities of prominent Russian scientists, diplomats, military, statesmen, cultural and art workers. In 1873 in St. Petersburg, in the park in front of the Alexandrinsky Theater (now Ostrovsky Square), an impressive multi-figured monument to Catherine was erected, designed by M.O. Mikeshin by sculptors A.M. Opekushin and M.A.Chizhov and architects V.A. Schreter and D. I. Grimm. The foot of the monument consists of a sculptural composition, the characters of which are - prominent figures Catherine's era and associates of the Empress:

The events of the last years of the reign of Alexander II - in particular, the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 - prevented the implementation of the plan to expand the memorial to the Catherine era. DI Grimm developed a project for the construction of bronze statues and busts depicting the leaders of the glorious reign in the park next to the monument to Catherine II. According to the final list, approved a year before the death of Alexander II, six bronze sculptures and twenty-three busts on granite pedestals were to be placed next to the monument to Catherine.

In growth were to be depicted: Count N.I. Panin, Admiral G.A. Spiridov, writer D.I.Fonvizin, Prosecutor General of the Senate Prince A.A. Vyazemsky, Field Marshal Prince N.V. Repnin and General A. I. Bibikov, former chairman of the Stowage Commission. In the busts - publisher and journalist N.I. Novikov, traveler P.S.Pallas, playwright A.P. Sumarokov, historians I.N.Boltin and Prince M.M.Shcherbatov, artists D.G. Levitsky and V.L Borovikovsky, architect A.F.Kokorinov, favorite of Catherine II Count G.G. Orlov, admirals F.F.Ushakov, S.K. Greig, A.I.Kruz, military leaders: Count Z.G. Chernyshev, Prince V. M. Dolgorukov-Krymsky, Count IE Ferzen, Count VA Zubov; Moscow Governor-General Prince M.N. Volkonsky, Novgorod Governor Count Ya. E. Sivers, diplomat Ya. I. Bulgakov, suppressor of the "plague riot" of 1771 in Moscow P. D. Eropkin, who suppressed the Pugachev rebellion, Count P. I. Panin and I. I. Mikhelson, the hero of the capture of the fortress Ochakov I. I. Meller-Zakomelsky.

In addition to those listed, such famous figures of the era are celebrated as:

Catherine in art

To the cinema

• "Catherine the Great", 2005. Emily Brun as Catherine
• "Golden Age", 2003. In the role of Catherine - Vija Artmane
• "Russian Ark", 2002. In the role of Catherine - Maria Kuznetsova, Natalia Nikulenko
• "Russian revolt", 2000. In the role of Catherine -

Empress Catherine II the Great (1729-1796) ruled the Russian Empire in 1762-1796. Ascended the throne as a result palace coup... With the support of the guards, she overthrew her unloved and unpopular husband in the country, Peter III, and laid the foundation for the Catherine's era, which is also called the "golden age" of the empire.

Portrait of Empress Catherine II
Artist A. Roslin

Before accession to the throne

The All-Russian autocrat belonged to the noble German princely family of Askania, known since the 11th century. She was born on April 21, 1729 in the German city of Stettin, in the family of the Prince of Anhalt-Dornburg. At that time, he was the commandant of Stettin Castle, and soon received the rank of lieutenant general. Mother - Johanna Elizabeth belonged to the German Ducal dynasty of Oldenburg. The full name of the born baby sounded like Anhalt-Zerbst Sophia Frederick Augustus.

The family did not have much money, so Sophia Frederica Augusta received her education at home. The girl was taught theology, music, dance, history, geography, and also taught French, English and Italian languages.

The future empress grew up as a playful girl. She spent a lot of time on the city streets, playing with the boys. She was even called "the boy in the skirt". Mother lovingly called her poor daughter "Frikchen".

Alexey Starikov

Catherine II Alekseevna the Great (née Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst, German Sophie Auguste Friederike von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg, in Orthodoxy Ekaterina Alekseevna; April 21 (May 2) 1729, Stettin, Prussia - November 6 (17), 1796 Palace, Petersburg) - Empress of All Russia from 1762 to 1796.

The daughter of Prince Anhalt-Zerbst, Catherine came to power in a palace coup that overthrew her unpopular husband Peter III from the throne.

The Catherine era was marked by the maximum enslavement of the peasants and the comprehensive expansion of the privileges of the nobility.

Under Catherine the Great, the borders of the Russian Empire were significantly extended to the west (sections of the Commonwealth) and to the south (the annexation of Novorossia).

System government controlled under Catherine II, it was reformed for the first time since time.

Culturally, Russia finally became one of the great European powers, which was greatly facilitated by the empress herself, who was fond of literary activity, who collected masterpieces of painting and was in correspondence with French enlighteners.

In general, Catherine's policy and her reforms fit into the channel of the enlightened absolutism of the 18th century.

Catherine II the Great ( documentary)

Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born on April 21 (May 2 in a new style) 1729 in the then German city of Stettin - the capital of Pomerania (Pomorie). Now the city is called Szczecin, among other territories it was voluntarily transferred The Soviet Union, according to the results of the Second World War, Poland and is the capital of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship of Poland.

Father, Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, came from the Zerbst-Dorneburg line of the House of Anhalt and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, where the future empress was born, ran for the dukes of Courland, but unsuccessfully , finished his service as a Prussian field marshal. Mother - Johanna Elizabeth, from the Gottorp sovereign house, was the cousin of the future Peter III. Johanna Elizabeth's lineage goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and the founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.

His maternal uncle, Adolf-Friedrich, was elected heir to the Swedish throne in 1743, to which he entered in 1751 under the name of Adolf-Fredrik. Another uncle, Karl Eitinsky, according to the plan of Catherine I, was to become the husband of her daughter Elizabeth, but died on the eve of the wedding celebrations.

In the family of the Duke of Zerbst, Catherine received a home education. She studied English, French and Italian, dance, music, the basics of history, geography, theology. She grew up as a playful, inquisitive, playful girl, she loved to flaunt her courage in front of the boys, with whom she easily played on the Stettin streets. Parents were unhappy with their daughter's "boyish" behavior, but they were fine with Frederica taking care of her younger sister Augusta. Her mother called her in childhood Fike or Fikchen (German Figchen - comes from the name Frederica, that is, "little Frederica").

In 1743, the Russian Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, choosing a bride for her heir, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, the future Russian emperor), remembered that on her deathbed her mother bequeathed her to become the wife of a Holstein prince, the brother of Johann Elizabeth. Perhaps it was this circumstance that tipped the scales in Frederica's favor; Elizabeth had previously vigorously supported her uncle's election to the Swedish throne and exchanged portraits with her mother. In 1744, the Zerb princess, along with her mother, was invited to Russia to marry Peter Fedorovich, who was her second cousin. She first saw her future husband at Eitinsky Castle in 1739.

Immediately after arriving in Russia, she began to study the Russian language, history, Orthodoxy, Russian traditions, as she strove to get to know Russia as fully as possible, which she perceived as a new homeland. Among her teachers, the famous preacher Simon Todorsky (teacher of Orthodoxy), the author of the first Russian grammar Vasily Adadurov (teacher of the Russian language) and choreographer Lange (dance teacher) are distinguished.

In an effort to learn Russian as quickly as possible, the future empress studied at night, sitting at an open window in the frosty air. Soon she fell ill with pneumonia, and her condition was so grave that her mother offered to bring in a Lutheran pastor. Sofia, however, refused and sent for Simon Todorsky. This circumstance added to her popularity at the Russian court. June 28 (July 9) 1744 Sophia Frederica Augusta converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy and received the name of Catherine Alekseevna (the same name and patronymic as Elizabeth's mother, Catherine I), and the next day she was betrothed to the future emperor.

The appearance of Sofia with her mother in St. Petersburg was accompanied by a political intrigue, in which her mother, Princess Zerbst, was involved. She was a fan of King Frederick II of Prussia, and the latter decided to use her stay at the Russian imperial court to establish his influence on foreign policy Russia. For this, it was planned, through intrigue and influence on the Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, to remove from the affairs of Chancellor Bestuzhev, who pursued an anti-Prussian policy, and replace him with another nobleman who sympathized with Prussia. However, Bestuzhev managed to intercept the letters of the Princess of Zerbst to Frederick II and present them to Elizaveta Petrovna. After the latter learned about the "ugly role of a Prussian spy" played by Sofia's mother at her court, she immediately changed her attitude towards her and disgraced her. However, this did not affect the position of Sophia herself, who did not take part in this intrigue.

On August 21, 1745, at the age of sixteen, Catherine was married to Peter Fedorovich, who turned 17 and was her second cousin. The first years of their life together, Peter was not at all interested in his wife, and there was no marital relationship between them.

Finally, after two failed pregnancies, September 20, 1754 Catherine gave birth to her son Paul... The birth was difficult, the baby was immediately taken away from the mother at the behest of the reigning Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, and Catherine was deprived of the opportunity to educate, allowing him to see Paul only occasionally. So the Grand Duchess first saw her son only 40 days after giving birth. A number of sources claim that Paul's true father was Catherine's lover S. V. Saltykov (there is no direct statement about this in the Notes of Catherine II, but they are often interpreted this way). Others - that such rumors are groundless, and that Peter underwent an operation that eliminated the defect that made conception impossible. The question of paternity aroused public interest as well.

After the birth of Paul, relations with Peter and Elizabeth Petrovna finally deteriorated. Peter called his wife "spare madam" and openly made mistresses, however, without hindering Catherine from doing this, who during this period, thanks to the efforts of the British ambassador Sir Charles Henbury Williams, had a relationship with Stanislav Ponyatovsky, the future king of Poland. On December 9, 1757, Catherine gave birth to her daughter Anna, which aroused strong discontent with Peter, who said at the news of a new pregnancy: “God knows why my wife became pregnant again! I'm not at all sure if this child is from me and should I take it personally. "

During this period, the British ambassador Williams was a close friend and confidant of Catherine. He repeatedly provided her with significant amounts in the form of loans or subsidies: in 1750 alone, 50,000 rubles were transferred to her, for which there are two of her receipts; and in November 1756 44,000 rubles were transferred to her. In return, he received various confidential information from her - orally and through letters that she wrote to him quite regularly, as if on behalf of a man (for conspiracy purposes). In particular, at the end of 1756, after the start of the Seven Years War with Prussia (of which England was an ally), Williams, as follows from his own dispatches, received from Catherine important information about the state of the belligerent Russian army and about the plan of the Russian offensive, which was him transferred to London, as well as to Berlin, the Prussian king Frederick II. After Williams left, she received money from his successor, Keith. Historians explain Catherine's frequent appeal for money to the British by her extravagance, because of which her expenses were much higher than the amounts that were allocated for her maintenance from the treasury. In one of her letters to Williams, she promised, as a token of gratitude, “To bring Russia to a friendly alliance with England, to render her everywhere the assistance and preference necessary for the good of all of Europe, and especially Russia, over their common enemy, France, whose greatness is a shame for Russia. I will learn to practice these feelings, base my glory on them and prove to the king, your sovereign, the strength of these feelings of mine ".

Already starting in 1756, and especially during the period of Elizabeth Petrovna's illness, Catherine was hatching a plan to remove the future emperor (her husband) from the throne by conspiracy, about which she repeatedly wrote to Williams. To this end, Catherine, according to the historian V.O. Klyuchevsky, “begged for gifts and bribes of 10 thousand pounds sterling from the English king, pledging to act on her word of honor in the common Anglo-Russian interests, began to think about involving the guards in the case in case of death Elizabeth, entered into a secret agreement on this with the hetman K. Razumovsky, the commander of one of the guards regiments. " Chancellor Bestuzhev was also dedicated to this plan of the palace coup, who promised assistance to Catherine.

At the beginning of 1758, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna suspected of treason the commander-in-chief of the Russian army Apraksin, with whom Catherine was on friendly terms, as well as Chancellor Bestuzhev himself. Both were arrested, interrogated and punished; however, Bestuzhev managed to destroy all his correspondence with Catherine before his arrest, which saved her from persecution and disgrace. At the same time, Williams was recalled to England. Thus, her previous favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov and Dashkova.

The death of Elizabeth Petrovna (December 25, 1761) and the accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name of Peter III further alienated the spouses. Peter III began to live openly with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace. When Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, this could no longer be explained by accidental conception from her husband, since the communication of the spouses had completely ceased by that time. Catherine hid her pregnancy, and when it came time to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Grigorievich Shkurin set fire to his house. A lover of such spectacles, Peter with the courtyard left the palace to look at the fire; at this time, Catherine successfully gave birth. This is how Aleksey Bobrinsky was born, to whom his brother Pavel I later assigned the title of count.

Having ascended the throne, Peter III carried out a number of actions that caused a negative attitude towards him in the officer corps. So, he entered into an unprofitable treaty for Russia with Prussia, while Russia won a number of victories over her during the Seven Years War, and returned to her the lands captured by the Russians. At the same time, he intended, in alliance with Prussia, to oppose Denmark (Russia's ally), with the aim of returning Schleswig, which she had taken from Holstein, and he himself intended to march at the head of the guard. Peter announced the sequestration of the property of the Russian Church, the abolition of monastic land tenure and shared with the surrounding plans to reform church rituals. Supporters of the coup also accused Peter III of ignorance, dementia, dislike for Russia, complete inability to rule. Against his background, Catherine looked favorably - an intelligent, well-read, pious and benevolent wife who was persecuted by her husband.

After the relationship with her husband finally deteriorated and dissatisfaction with the emperor on the part of the guards increased, Catherine decided to participate in the coup. Her comrades-in-arms, the main of whom were the Orlov brothers, sergeant Potemkin and adjutant Fedor Khitrovo, engaged in agitation in the guards units and persuaded them to their side. The immediate reason for the start of the coup was rumors about the arrest of Catherine and the disclosure and arrest of one of the participants in the conspiracy - Lieutenant Passek.

Apparently, foreign participation was also involved here. As A. Troyat and K. Walishevsky write, planning the overthrow of Peter III, Catherine turned to the French and the British for money, hinting at what she was going to accomplish. The French reacted with suspicion to her request to borrow 60 thousand rubles, not believing in the seriousness of her plan, but she received 100 thousand rubles from the British, which subsequently, possibly, influenced her attitude towards England and France.

In the early morning of June 28 (July 9), 1762, while Peter III was in Oranienbaum, Catherine, accompanied by Alexei and Grigory Orlov, arrived from Peterhof to St. Petersburg, where the guards units swore allegiance to her. Peter III, seeing the hopelessness of resistance, abdicated the next day, was taken into custody and died under unexplained circumstances. In her letter, Catherine once pointed out that before his death, Peter suffered from hemorrhoidal colic. After death (although facts indicate that even before death - see below), Catherine ordered an autopsy to be done in order to dispel suspicions of poisoning. An autopsy showed (according to Catherine) that the stomach is absolutely clean, which excludes the presence of poison.

At the same time, as the historian N.I. Pavlenko writes, "The violent death of the emperor is irrefutably confirmed by absolutely reliable sources" - Orlov's letters to Catherine and a number of other facts. There are also facts indicating that she knew about the impending assassination of Peter III. So, already on July 4, 2 days before the death of the emperor in the palace in Ropsha, Catherine sent the doctor Paulsen to him, and as Pavlenko writes, "It is indicative that Paulsen was sent to Ropsha not with medicines, but with surgical instruments for opening the body.".

After her husband's abdication, Ekaterina Alekseevna ascended the throne as reigning empress with the name of Catherine II, issuing a manifesto in which the basis for the removal of Peter indicated an attempt to change the state religion and peace with Prussia. To substantiate her own rights to the throne (and not the heir to Paul), Catherine referred to "the desire of all Our loyal subjects is obvious and unhypocritical." On September 22 (October 3), 1762, she was crowned in Moscow. As V.O. Klyuchevsky described her accession to the throne, "Catherine made a double seizure: she took power from her husband and did not transfer it to her son, the natural heir of his father.".

The policy of Catherine II was characterized mainly by the preservation and development of the trends laid down by her predecessors. In the middle of the reign, an administrative (provincial) reform was carried out, which determined the territorial structure of the country until 1917, as well as judicial reform... The territory of the Russian state increased significantly due to the annexation of fertile southern lands - Crimea, the Black Sea region, as well as the eastern part of the Commonwealth, etc. The population increased from 23.2 million (in 1763) to 37.4 million (in 1796), in terms of population, Russia became the largest European country (it accounted for 20% of the population of Europe). Catherine II formed 29 new provinces and built about 144 cities.

Klyuchevsky on the reign of Catherine the Great: "The army from 162 thousand people was strengthened to 312 thousand, the fleet, which in 1757 consisted of 21 ships of the line and 6 frigates, in 1790 counted 67 ships of the line and 40 frigates and 300 rowing ships, the amount of state revenues from 16 million rubles. rose to 69 million, that is, more than quadrupled, the success of foreign trade: the Baltic - in increasing import and export, from 9 million to 44 million rubles., the Black Sea, Ekaterina and created - from 390 thousand in 1776 to 1 million 900 thousand rubles in 1796, the growth of internal turnover was indicated by the issue of coins in 34 years of the reign for 148 million rubles, while in the 62 preceding years it was issued only for 97 million. "

Population growth was largely the result of the annexation of foreign states and territories to Russia (in which almost 7 million people lived), which often occurred against the wishes of the local population, which led to the emergence of the "Polish", "Ukrainian", "Jewish" and others. national issues inherited by the Russian Empire from the era of Catherine II. Hundreds of villages under Catherine received the status of a city, but in fact they remained villages in appearance and occupation of the population, the same applies to a number of cities founded by her (some generally existed only on paper, as evidenced by contemporaries). In addition to the issue of the coin, paper notes were issued for 156 million rubles, which led to inflation and a significant devaluation of the ruble; therefore, the real growth of budget revenues and other economic indicators during her reign was much less than the nominal one.

The Russian economy continued to be agrarian. The share of the urban population practically did not increase, amounting to about 4%. At the same time, a number of cities were founded (Tiraspol, Grigoriopol, etc.), pig iron smelting increased more than 2 times (in which Russia took 1st place in the world), and the number of sail-linen manufactories increased. In total, by the end of the 18th century. there were 1200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were 663 of them). Exports of Russian goods to other European countries increased significantly, including through the created Black Sea ports. However, in the structure of this export there were no finished products at all, only raw materials and semi-finished products, and foreign industrial products prevailed in imports. While in the West in the second half of the 18th century. the Industrial Revolution took place, Russian industry remained "patriarchal" and serfdom, which caused it to lag behind the West. Finally, in the 1770s and 1780s. an acute social and economic crisis broke out, which also resulted in a financial crisis.

Catherine's adherence to the ideas of the Enlightenment largely predetermined the fact that the term "enlightened absolutism" is often used to characterize the internal politics of Catherine's time. She really brought some of the ideas of the Enlightenment to life.

So, according to Catherine, based on the works of the French philosopher, the vast Russian spaces and the severity of the climate determine the regularity and necessity of autocracy in Russia. Based on this, under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the system of government was unified. However, the ideas expressed by Diderot and Voltaire, whose adherent she was in words, did not correspond to her domestic policy... They defended the idea that every person is born free, and advocated the equality of all people and the elimination of medieval forms of exploitation and despotic forms of government. Contrary to these ideas, under Catherine there was a further deterioration in the position of serfs, their exploitation intensified, inequality grew due to the granting of even greater privileges to the nobility.

In general, historians characterize her policy as "pro-noble" and believe that despite the empress's frequent statements about her "vigilant concern for the welfare of all subjects," the concept of the common good in the era of Catherine was the same fiction as in general in Russia in the 18th century.

Under Catherine, the territory of the empire was divided into provinces, many of which remained practically unchanged until the October Revolution. The territory of Estonia and Livonia as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into two provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. Also, the special Baltic order was eliminated, which provided for more extensive rights of local nobles to work and the personality of a peasant than that of Russian landowners. Siberia was divided into three provinces: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.

Speaking about the reasons for the provincial reform under Catherine, N.I. Pavlenko writes that it was a response to the Peasant War of 1773-1775. under the leadership of Pugachev, which revealed the weakness of the local authorities and their inability to cope with peasant riots. The reform was preceded by a series of notes submitted to the government from the nobility, in which it was recommended to multiply the network of institutions and "police overseers" in the country.

Carrying out the provincial reform in the Left-Bank Ukraine in 1783-1785. led to a change in the regimental structure (former regiments and hundreds) to a common administrative division for the Russian Empire into provinces and counties, the final establishment of serfdom and equalization in the rights of the Cossack foreman with the Russian nobility. With the conclusion of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhiyskiy treaty (1774), Russia gained access to the Black Sea and Crimea.

Thus, there was no need to preserve the special rights and control system of the Zaporozhye Cossacks. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, as well as in connection with the support of the Pugachev uprising by the Cossacks, Catherine II ordered the dissolution of the Zaporozhye Sich, which was executed by order of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporozhye Cossacks by General Pyotr Tekeli in June 1775.

The Sich was disbanded, most of the Cossacks were disbanded, and the fortress itself was destroyed. In 1787, Catherine II, together with Potemkin, visited the Crimea, where she was met by the Amazon company created for her arrival; in the same year, the Army of the Faithful Zaporozhians was created, which later became the Black Sea Cossack army, and in 1792 he was granted the Kuban for perpetual use, where the Cossacks moved, founding the city of Yekaterinodar.

The reforms on the Don created a military civilian government modeled on the provincial administrations of central Russia. In 1771, the Kalmyk Khanate was finally annexed to Russia.

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the extensive development of the economy and trade, while maintaining the "patriarchal" industry and Agriculture... By a decree of 1775, factories and industrial plants were recognized as property, the disposal of which does not require special permission from the authorities. In 1763, the free exchange of copper money for silver was prohibited, so as not to provoke the development of inflation. The development and revival of trade was facilitated by the emergence of new credit institutions (state bank and loan office) and the expansion of banking operations (since 1770, the acceptance of deposits was introduced). A state bank was established and for the first time the issue of paper money - bank notes - was launched.

State regulation of salt prices introduced, which was one of the country's vital goods. The Senate legislated the price of salt at 30 kopecks per pood (instead of 50 kopecks) and 10 kopecks per pood in the regions of mass salting of fish. Without introducing a state monopoly on the salt trade, Catherine counted on increasing competition and ultimately improving the quality of the goods. However, the price of salt was soon raised again. At the beginning of the reign, some monopolies were abolished: the state monopoly on trade with China, the private monopoly of the merchant Shemyakin on the import of silk, and others.

Russia's role in the global economy has grown- Russian sailing linen began to be exported to England in large quantities, the export of cast iron and iron increased to other European countries (the consumption of cast iron in the domestic Russian market also increased significantly). But the export of raw materials increased especially strongly: timber (5 times), hemp, bristles, etc., as well as bread. The volume of the country's exports increased from 13.9 million rubles. in 1760 to 39.6 million rubles. in 1790

Russian merchant ships began sailing in the Mediterranean as well. However, their number was insignificant in comparison with foreign ones - only 7% of the total number of ships serving Russian foreign trade at the end of the XVIII - early XIX centuries; the number of foreign merchant ships that annually entered Russian ports during the period of her reign increased from 1340 to 2430.

As the economic historian N.A. Rozhkov pointed out, there were no finished products at all in the structure of exports in the era of Catherine, only raw materials and semi-finished products, and 80-90% of imports were foreign industrial products, the volume of import of which was several times higher than domestic production. Thus, the volume of domestic manufacturing production in 1773 was 2.9 million rubles, the same as in 1765, and the volume of imports in these years was about 10 million rubles.

Industry developed poorly, there were practically no technical improvements and serf labor prevailed. Thus, from year to year, the cloth factories were unable to satisfy even the needs of the army, despite the ban on selling cloth “to the side,” in addition, the cloth was of poor quality and had to be bought abroad. Catherine herself did not understand the significance of the Industrial Revolution taking place in the West and argued that machines (or, as she called them, "colossus") harm the state by reducing the number of workers. Only two export industries developed rapidly - the production of cast iron and linen, but both - on the basis of "patriarchal" methods, without the use of new technologies that were actively introduced at that time in the West - which predetermined a severe crisis in both industries, which began soon after the death of Catherine II ...

In the field of foreign trade, Catherine's policy was a gradual transition from protectionism, characteristic of Elizabeth Petrovna, to the complete liberalization of exports and imports, which, according to a number of economic historians, was a consequence of the influence of the ideas of the physiocrats. Already in the first years of the reign, a number of foreign trade monopolies and the ban on grain exports, which from that time began to grow rapidly, were abolished. In 1765, the Free Economic Society was founded, which promoted the ideas of free trade and published its own magazine. In 1766, a new customs tariff was introduced, which significantly reduced tariff barriers compared to the protectionist tariff of 1757 (which established protective duties at a rate of 60 to 100% or more); they were even more reduced in the customs tariff of 1782. Thus, in the “moderately protectionist” tariff of 1766, protective duties averaged 30%, and in the liberal tariff of 1782 - 10%, only for some goods rising to 20%. thirty%.

Agriculture, like industry, developed mainly through extensive methods (increasing the amount of arable land); the promotion of intensive agricultural methods by the Economic Society created under Catherine the Free Economic Society did not have much result.

From the first years of Catherine's reign, famine periodically began to arise in the countryside, which some contemporaries explained by chronic crop failures, but the historian M.N. Pokrovsky linked it with the beginning of the mass export of grain, which was previously prohibited under Elizaveta Petrovna, and by the end of Catherine's reign amounted to 1.3 million rubles. in year. Cases of mass ruin of peasants have become more frequent. The Holodomors became especially widespread in the 1780s, when they covered large regions of the country. Prices for bread have grown strongly: for example, in the center of Russia (Moscow, Smolensk, Kaluga) they increased from 86 kopecks. in 1760 up to 2.19 rubles. in 1773 and up to 7 rubles. in 1788, that is, more than 8 times.

Introduced into circulation in 1769 paper money - banknotes- in the first decade of its existence, they accounted for only a few percent of the metal (silver and copper) money supply, and played a positive role, allowing the state to reduce its costs of moving money within the empire. However, due to the lack of money in the treasury, which has become a constant phenomenon, since the beginning of the 1780s, an increasing number of banknotes were issued, the volume of which reached 156 million rubles by 1796, and their value had depreciated 1.5 times. In addition, the state borrowed money from abroad in the amount of 33 million rubles. and had various unpaid internal obligations (bills, salaries, etc.) in the amount of 15.5 million rubles. So the total amount of government debts amounted to 205 million rubles, the treasury was empty, and budget expenditures significantly exceeded revenues, which was stated by Paul I upon accession to the throne. All this gave rise to the historian ND Chechulin in his economic research to draw a conclusion about the "severe economic crisis" in the country (in the second half of the reign of Catherine II) and "the complete collapse of the financial system of Catherine's reign."

In 1768, a network of urban schools based on the classroom system was created. Schools began to open actively. Under Catherine, special attention was paid to the development of women's education, in 1764 the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Educational Society for Noble Maidens were opened. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics room, an anatomical theater were founded, Botanical Garden, tool shops, printing house, library, archive. The Russian Academy was founded on October 11, 1783.

Introduced compulsory smallpox vaccination, and Catherine decided to set a personal example for her subjects: on the night of October 12 (23), 1768, the empress herself was vaccinated against smallpox. Among the first vaccinated were also Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich and Grand Duchess Maria Feodorovna. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to acquire the character of state measures that were directly part of the responsibilities of the Imperial Council and the Senate. By order of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only at the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The "Charter of Border and Port Quarantines" was created.

New directions of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and orphanages were opened. A number of fundamental works on medicine have been published.

To prevent their resettlement to the central regions of Russia and attachment to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II established the Pale of Settlement in 1791 outside of which Jews had no right to reside. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where the Jews had lived before - on the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated territories east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy removed all restrictions on living. It is noted that the Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity, the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

In 1762-1764, Catherine published two manifestos. The first - "On permission for all foreigners entering Russia, to settle in which provinces they wish, and on the rights granted to them" called upon foreign subjects to move to Russia, the second determined the list of benefits and privileges for migrants. Soon, the first German settlements arose in the Volga region, reserved for immigrants. The influx of German colonists was so great that already in 1766 it was necessary to temporarily suspend the reception of new settlers until the settlement of those who had already entered. The creation of colonies on the Volga went on increasing: in 1765 - 12 colonies, in 1766 - 21, in 1767 - 67. According to the census of colonists in 1769, 6.5 thousand families lived in 105 colonies on the Volga, which amounted to 23.2 thousand people. In the future, the German community will play a significant role in the life of Russia.

During the reign of Catherine, the country included the Northern Black Sea region, the Azov region, Crimea, Novorossia, the lands between the Dniester and the Bug, Belarus, Courland and Lithuania. Total number new subjects acquired in this way by Russia reached 7 million. As a result, as V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote, in the Russian Empire, "the strife of interests" between different nations... This was expressed, in particular, in the fact that for almost every nationality the government was forced to introduce a special economic, tax and administrative regime. Thus, the German colonists were completely exempted from paying taxes to the state and from other duties; the Pale of Settlement was introduced for the Jews; from the Ukrainian and Belarusian population on the territory of the former Rzeczpospolita, the poll tax was initially not levied at all, and then it was levied in half. The most discriminated against in these conditions was the indigenous population, which led to the following incident: some Russian noblemen in the late 18th - early 19th centuries. as a reward for their service, they were asked to be “registered as Germans” so that they could enjoy the appropriate privileges.

On April 21, 1785, two letters were issued: "Diploma for the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble nobility" and "Certificate of Appreciation to Cities"... The empress called them the crown of her activity, and historians consider them to be the crown of the "pro-nobility policy" of the kings of the 18th century. As N.I. Pavlenko writes, "In the history of Russia, the nobility has never been blessed with such a variety of privileges as under Catherine II."

Both charters finally secured for the upper estates those rights, duties and privileges that had already been granted by Catherine's predecessors during the 18th century, and provided a number of new ones. Thus, the nobility as an estate was formed by decrees of Peter I and at the same time received a number of privileges, including exemption from the poll tax and the right to dispose of estates without restriction; and by the decree of Peter III, it was finally freed from compulsory service to the state.

The letter of grant to the nobility contained the following guarantees:

Already existing rights were confirmed
- the nobility was exempted from quartering military units and teams, from corporal punishment
- the nobility received the title to the bowels of the earth
- the right to have their own estate institutions changed the name of the 1st estate: not "nobility", but "noble nobility"
- it was forbidden to confiscate the estates of nobles for criminal offenses; estates were to be transferred to legal heirs
- the nobles have exclusive ownership of land, but the "Letter" does not say a word about the monopoly right to have serfs
- Ukrainian foremen were equal in rights with Russian nobles. a nobleman who did not have an officer's rank was deprived of the suffrage
- only noblemen, whose income from estates exceeds 100 rubles, could occupy elective posts.

Despite the privileges, in the era of Catherine II, property inequality increased greatly among the nobility: against the background of individual large fortunes, the economic situation of part of the nobility deteriorated. As the historian D.Blum points out, a number of large nobles owned tens and hundreds of thousands of serfs, which was not the case in previous reigns (when the owner of more than 500 souls was considered rich); at the same time, almost 2/3 of all landowners in 1777 had less than 30 male serf souls, and 1/3 of the landowners had less than 10 souls; many nobles who wanted to enroll in civil service did not have the funds to purchase appropriate clothing and footwear. V. O. Klyuchevsky writes that many noble children in her reign, even becoming students of the maritime academy and “receiving a small salary (scholarships), 1 ruble each. per month, "from barefoot" could not even attend the academy and were forced, according to the report, not to think about the sciences, but about their own food, on the side to acquire funds for their maintenance. "

During the reign of Catherine II, a number of laws were adopted that worsened the situation of the peasants:

The decree of 1763 entrusted the maintenance of the military commands sent to suppress the peasant uprisings to the peasants themselves.
According to the decree of 1765, for open disobedience, the landowner could send the peasant not only into exile, but also to hard labor, and the term of hard labor was set by him himself; the landowners also had the right to return the exiled from hard labor at any time.
The decree of 1767 forbade the peasants to complain about their master; the disobedient were threatened with exile to Nerchinsk (but they could go to court).
In 1783 serfdom was introduced in Little Russia (Left-Bank Ukraine and the Russian Black Earth Region).
In 1796 serfdom was introduced in Novorossiya (Don, North Caucasus).
After the partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the feudal regime was tightened in the territories that had become part of the Russian Empire (Right-Bank Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Poland).

As N.I. Pavlenko writes, under Catherine "serfdom developed in depth and breadth", which was "an example of a blatant contradiction between the ideas of the Enlightenment and government measures to strengthen the serf regime."

During her reign, Catherine gave away more than 800 thousand peasants to the landowners and nobles, thereby setting a kind of record. Most of them were not state peasants, but peasants from lands acquired during the partition of Poland, as well as palace peasants. But, for example, the number of attributed (possessory) peasants from 1762 to 1796. increased from 210 to 312 thousand people, and these were formally free (state) peasants, but converted to the position of serfs or slaves. Possessional peasants of the Ural factories took an active part in Peasant War 1773-1775

At the same time, the position of the monastic peasants was eased, and they were transferred to the jurisdiction of the College of Economy along with the lands. All their duties were replaced by monetary quitrent, which gave the peasants more independence and developed their economic initiative. As a result, the unrest of the monastery peasants stopped.

The fact that the empress was proclaimed a woman who did not have any formal rights to this gave rise to many claimants to the throne, which overshadowed a significant part of the reign of Catherine II. So, only from 1764 to 1773 seven False Peter III appeared in the country(who claimed that they were nothing more than the "resurrected" Peter III) - A. Aslanbekov, I. Evdokimov, G. Kremnev, P. Chernyshov, G. Ryabov, F. Bogomolov, N. Krestov; the eighth was Emelyan Pugachev. And in 1774-1775. to this list was added the “case of Princess Tarakanova,” posing as the daughter of Elizaveta Petrovna.

During 1762-1764. 3 conspiracies were revealed aimed at overthrowing Catherine, and two of them were associated with the name of Ivan Antonovich - the former Russian emperor Ivan VI, who at the time of accession to the throne of Catherine II continued to live in prison in the Shlisselburg fortress. The first was attended by 70 officers. The second took place in 1764, when Lieutenant V. Ya. Mirovich, who was on guard duty in the Shlisselburg fortress, won over part of the garrison to his side in order to free Ivan. The guards, however, in accordance with the instructions given to them, stabbed the prisoner, and Mirovich himself was arrested and executed.

In 1771, a major plague epidemic took place in Moscow, complicated by popular unrest in Moscow, called the Plague Riot. The rebels destroyed the Miracle Monastery in the Kremlin. The next day, the crowd attacked the Donskoy Monastery, killed Archbishop Ambrose who was hiding in it, and began to smash the quarantine outposts and houses of the nobility. Troops under the command of G.G. Orlov were sent to suppress the uprising. After three days of fighting, the riot was suppressed.

In 1773-1775 there was a peasant uprising led by Yemelyan Pugachev. It covered the lands of the Yaitsk army, the Orenburg province, the Urals, the Kama region, Bashkiria, part of Western Siberia, the Middle and Lower Volga regions. In the course of the uprising, the Bashkirs, Tatars, Kazakhs, Ural factory workers and numerous serfs from all provinces where hostilities were taking place joined the Cossacks. After the suppression of the uprising, some liberal reforms were curtailed and conservatism increased.

In 1772 the The first section of the Commonwealth... Austria received all of Galicia with its districts, Prussia - West Prussia (Pomorie), Russia - the eastern part of Belarus to Minsk (Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces) and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia. The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the partition and abandon claims for the lost territories: Poland lost 380,000 km² with a population of 4 million people.

Polish nobles and industrialists contributed to the adoption of the Constitution of 1791; the conservative part of the population of the Targovitsa Confederation turned to Russia for help.

In 1793 the The second section of the Commonwealth, approved at the Grodno Sejm. Prussia received Gdansk, Torun, Poznan (part of the land along the Warta and Vistula rivers), Russia - Central Belarus with Minsk and Novorossia (part of the territory of modern Ukraine).

In March 1794, an uprising began under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, whose goals were to restore territorial integrity, sovereignty and the Constitution on May 3, but in the spring of the same year it was suppressed by the Russian army under the command of A. V. Suvorov. During the Kosciuszko uprising, the uprising Poles, who seized the Russian embassy in Warsaw, discovered documents that had a great public resonance, according to which King Stanislav Ponyatovsky and a number of members of the Grodno Seim received money from the Russian government at the time of the approval of the 2nd section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. in particular, Poniatowski received several thousand ducats.

In 1795 the The third section of the Commonwealth... Austria received Southern Poland with Luban and Krakow, Prussia - Central Poland with Warsaw, Russia - Lithuania, Courland, Volhynia and Western Belarus.

October 13, 1795 - a conference of the three powers on the fall of the Polish state, it lost its statehood and sovereignty.

An important area of ​​the foreign policy of Catherine II was also the territory of the Crimea, the Black Sea region and North Caucasus under Turkish rule.

When the uprising of the Bar Confederation broke out, turkish sultan declared war on Russia (Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774), using as an excuse that one of the Russian detachments, pursuing the Poles, entered the territory of the Ottoman Empire. Russian troops defeated the Confederates and began to win one after another victories in the south. Having achieved success in a number of land and sea battles (the Battle of Kozludzhi, the Battle of the Pockmarked Tomb, the Battle of Kagul, the Battle of Larga, the Battle of Chesme, etc.), Russia forced Turkey to sign the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi treaty, as a result of which Crimean Khanate formally gained independence, but de facto began to depend on Russia. Turkey paid Russia military indemnities in the order of 4.5 million rubles, and also ceded the northern coast of the Black Sea along with two important ports.

After the end of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, Russia's policy towards the Crimean Khanate was aimed at establishing a pro-Russian ruler in it and joining Russia. Under pressure from Russian diplomacy, Shahin Girey was elected khan. The previous khan, a protege of Turkey, Devlet IV Girey, at the beginning of 1777 tried to resist, but it was suppressed by A. V. Suvorov, Devlet IV fled to Turkey. At the same time, the landing of a Turkish landing in the Crimea was prevented, and thus an attempt to unleash a new war, after which Turkey recognized Shahin Giray as a khan. In 1782, an uprising broke out against him, which was suppressed by the Russian troops introduced to the peninsula, and in 1783 by the manifesto of Catherine II the Crimean Khanate was annexed to Russia.

After the victory, the Empress, together with the Austrian Emperor Joseph II, made a triumphant trip across the Crimea.

The next war with Turkey took place in 1787-1792 and was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain the lands that had ceded to Russia during the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, including the Crimea. Here the Russians also won a number of important victories, both overland - the Battle of Kinburn, the Battle of Rymnik, the capture of Ochakov, the capture of Izmail, the battle of Fokshany, the Turkish campaigns against Bendery and Akkerman were repulsed, and others, and the sea - the battle of Fidonisi (1788), Battle of Kerch (1790), Battle of Cape Tendra (1790) and Battle of Kaliakria (1791). Eventually Ottoman Empire in 1791 she was forced to sign the Yassy Peace Treaty, securing the Crimea and Ochakov to Russia, as well as pushing the border between the two empires to the Dniester.

The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories of Rumyantsev, Orlov-Chesmensky, Suvorov, Potemkin, Ushakov, and the establishment of Russia in the Black Sea. As a result, they ceded to Russia the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, the Kuban region, strengthened its political positions in the Caucasus and the Balkans, and strengthened Russia's authority on the world stage.

According to many historians, these conquests are the main achievement of the reign of Catherine II. At the same time, a number of historians (K. Valishevsky, V. O. Klyuchevsky, etc.) and contemporaries (Frederick II, French ministers, etc.) explained the "amazing" victories of Russia over Turkey not so much by the strength of the Russian army and navy, which were still rather weak and poorly organized, as a result of the extreme decomposition during this period of the Turkish army and state.

The growth of Catherine II: 157 centimeters.

Personal life of Catherine II:

Unlike her predecessor, Catherine did not conduct extensive palace construction for her own needs. For a comfortable movement around the country, she equipped a network of small traveling palaces along the road from St. Petersburg to Moscow (from Chesmensky to Petrovsky) and only at the end of her life started building a new country residence in Pella (not preserved). In addition, she was worried about the lack of a spacious and modern residence in Moscow and its environs. Although she did not visit the old capital often, Catherine over the years cherished plans to rebuild the Moscow Kremlin, as well as to build suburban palaces in Lefortovo, Kolomenskoye and Tsaritsyno. For various reasons, none of these projects was completed.

Ekaterina was a brunette of average height. She combined high intelligence, education, statesmanship and commitment to "free love". Catherine is known for her connections with numerous lovers, the number of which (according to the list of the authoritative Catherine scholar P.I.Bartenev) reaches 23. The most famous of them were Sergei Saltykov, G.G. Orlov, horse guard lieutenant Vasilchikov, hussar Zorich, Lanskoy, the last favorite was the cornet Platon Zubov, who became a general. With Potemkin, according to some sources, Catherine was secretly married (1775, see Wedding of Catherine II and Potemkin). After 1762, she planned to marry Orlov, however, on the advice of those close to her, she abandoned this idea.

Catherine's love affairs were marked by a series of scandals. So, Grigory Orlov, being her favorite, at the same time (according to the testimony of M.M.Scherbatov) cohabited with all her maids of honor and even with his 13-year-old cousin. The favorite of the Empress Lanskoy used an aphrodisiac to increase "male strength" (contarid) in ever increasing doses, which, apparently, according to the conclusion of the court physician Weikart, was the reason for his unexpected death at a young age. Her last favorite, Platon Zubov, was a little over 20 years old, while the age of Catherine at that time had already passed over 60. Historians mention many other scandalous details (a "bribe" of 100 thousand rubles, paid to Potemkin by future favorites of the Empress, many of who were his adjutants before, testing their "male power" by her maids of honor, etc.).

The bewilderment of contemporaries, including foreign diplomats, the Austrian Emperor Joseph II, etc., was aroused by the rave reviews and characteristics that Catherine gave to her young favorites, mostly devoid of any outstanding talents. As N.I. Pavlenko writes, "neither before Catherine, nor after her, debauchery did not reach such a wide scale and did not manifest itself in such an openly defiant form."

It should be noted that in Europe, Catherine's "debauchery" was not such a rare phenomenon against the background of the general licentiousness of the 18th century. Most kings (with the possible exception of Frederick the Great, Louis XVI and Charles XII) had numerous mistresses. However, this does not apply to reigning queens and empresses. Thus, the Austrian Empress Maria Theresia wrote about the "disgust and horror" that such persons as Catherine II instill in her, and this attitude towards the latter was shared by her daughter Marie Antoinette. As K. Valishevsky wrote in this regard, comparing Catherine II with Louis XV, “the difference between the sexes until the end of centuries, we think, will give a deeply different character to the same actions, depending on whether they were committed by a man or a woman ... besides, the mistresses of Louis XV never influenced the fate of France.

There are numerous examples of the exceptional influence (both negative and positive) of the favorites of Catherine (Orlov, Potemkin, Platon Zubov, etc.) on the fate of the country, starting from June 28, 1762 until the very death of the Empress, as well as on its domestic, foreign policy and even on military actions. As N.I. Pavlenko writes, to please the favorite Grigory Potemkin, who envied the fame of Field Marshal Rumyantsev, this outstanding commander and hero of the Russian-Turkish wars was removed by Catherine from the command of the army and was forced to retire to his estate. Another, very mediocre commander, Musin-Pushkin, on the contrary, continued to lead the army, despite his blunders in military campaigns (for which the empress herself called him a "real idiot") - due to the fact that he was a "favorite on June 28", one of the those who helped Catherine to seize the throne.

In addition, the institution of favoritism had a negative effect on the mores of the higher nobility, which sought benefits through flattery to the new favorite, tried to lead “their man” into lovers to the empress, etc. A contemporary M. M. Shcherbatov wrote that the favoritism and debauchery of Catherine II contributed to the decline in the morals of the nobility of that era, and historians agree with this.

Catherine had two sons: Pavel Petrovich (1754) and Alexei Bobrinsky (1762 - the son of Grigory Orlov), as well as daughter Anna Petrovna (1757-1759, possibly from the future king of Poland Stanislav Ponyatovsky) who died in infancy. Less likely is Catherine's motherhood in relation to Potemkin's pupil Elizabeth, who was born when the empress was over 45 years old.

The topic of this article is the biography of Catherine the Great. From 1762 to 1796 this empress reigned. The era of her reign was marked by the enslavement of the peasants. Also, Catherine the Great, whose biography, photos and activities are presented in this article, significantly expanded the privileges of the nobility.

The origin and childhood of Catherine

The future empress was born on May 2 (in a new style - April 21) 1729 in Stettin. She was the daughter of the Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, who was in the Prussian service, and Princess Johann Elisabeth. The future empress was related to the English, Prussian and Swedish royal houses. She received her education at home: she studied French and German, music, theology, geography, history, and danced. Expanding on such a topic as the biography of Catherine the Great, we note that the independent character of the future empress manifested itself already in childhood. She was a persistent, inquisitive child, had a penchant for mobile, lively games.

Baptism and wedding of Catherine

Catherine, together with her mother, was summoned to Russia by Empress Elizabeth Petrovna in 1744. Here she was baptized according to the Orthodox tradition. Ekaterina Alekseevna became the bride of Peter Fedorovich, the Grand Duke (in the future - Emperor Peter III). She married him in 1745.

Empress hobbies

Catherine wanted to win the favor of her husband, the Empress and the Russian people. Her personal life, however, was unsuccessful. Since Peter was childish, there was no conjugal relationship between them for several years of marriage. Catherine was fond of reading works on jurisprudence, history and economics, as well as French educators. All these books shaped her worldview. The future empress became a supporter of the ideas of the Enlightenment. She was also interested in the traditions, customs and history of Russia.

Personal life of Catherine II

Today we know quite a lot about such an important historical person as Catherine the Great: biography, her children, personal life - all this is an object of research by historians and the interest of many of our compatriots. We first meet this empress at school. However, what we learn in history lessons is far from complete information about such an empress as Catherine the Great. A biography (grade 4) from a school textbook omits, for example, her personal life.

Catherine II in the early 1750s started an affair with S.V. Saltykov, a guard officer. She gave birth to a son in 1754, the future Emperor Paul I. Nevertheless, rumors that Saltykov was his father are unfounded. In the second half of the 1750s, Catherine had an affair with S. Poniatowski, a Polish diplomat who later became King Stanislaw August. Also in the early 1760s - with G.G. Orlov. The Empress gave birth to his son Alexei in 1762, who received the name Bobrinsky. As relations with her husband deteriorated, Catherine began to fear for her fate and began to recruit supporters at court. Her sincere love for her homeland, her prudence and ostentatious piety - all this contrasted with the behavior of her husband, which allowed the future empress to gain prestige among the population of St. Petersburg and the high society metropolitan society.

The proclamation of Catherine as Empress

Catherine's relationship with her husband continued to deteriorate during the 6 months of his reign, eventually becoming hostile. Peter III openly appeared in the company of his mistress E.R. Vorontsova. There was a threat of Catherine's arrest and her possible expulsion. The future empress carefully prepared the conspiracy. She was supported by N.I. Panin, E.R. Dashkova, K.G. Razumovsky, the Orlov brothers, etc. One night, from June 27 to June 28, 1762, when Peter III was in Oranienbaum, Catherine secretly arrived in St. Petersburg. She was proclaimed the autocratic empress in the barracks of the Izmailovsky regiment. Other regiments soon joined the rebels. The news of the empress's accession to the throne quickly spread throughout the city. Petersburgers greeted her with delight. Messengers to Kronstadt and to the army were sent to prevent the actions of Peter III. He, having learned about what happened, began to send proposals for negotiations to Catherine, but she rejected them. The Empress personally set out for St. Petersburg, leading the Guards regiments, and on the way received a written abdication of the throne of Peter III.

More about the palace coup

As a result of the palace coup on July 9, 1762, Catherine II came to power. It happened as follows. Because of the arrest of Passek, all the conspirators got to their feet, fearing that the arrested person might betray them under torture. It was decided to send Alexei Orlov for Ekaterina. The Empress at this time lived in anticipation of the name day of Peter III in Peterhof. On the morning of June 28, Alexei Orlov ran into her bedroom and announced the arrest of Passek. Ekaterina got into Orlov's carriage, she was brought to the Izmailovsky regiment. The soldiers ran out into the square in drumming and immediately swore allegiance to her. Then she moved to the Semenovsky regiment, which also swore allegiance to the empress. Accompanied by a crowd of people, at the head of two regiments, Catherine went to the Kazan Cathedral. Here, at a prayer service, she was proclaimed empress. Then she went to the Winter Palace and found the Synod and Senate already assembled there. They also swore allegiance to her.

Personality and character of Catherine II

Interesting is not only the biography of Catherine the Great, but also her personality and character, which left an imprint on her domestic and foreign policy. Catherine II was a subtle psychologist and an excellent connoisseur of people. The Empress skillfully chose assistants, while not being afraid of talented and outstanding personalities. Therefore, the Catherine's time was marked by the appearance of many outstanding statesmen, as well as military leaders, musicians, artists, and writers. Catherine was usually restrained, tactful, and patient in her relations with her subjects. She was an excellent conversationalist, could listen carefully to anyone. By the empress's own admission, she did not possess a creative mind, but she caught worthwhile thoughts and knew how to use them for her own purposes.

There were almost no noisy resignations during the reign of this empress. The nobles were not subject to disgrace, they were not exiled or executed. Because of this, the time of Catherine's reign is considered the "golden age" of the nobility in Russia. The Empress, at the same time, was very vain and valued her power more than anything else in the world. She was ready to make any compromises for her preservation, including to the detriment of her own convictions.

The empress's religiosity

This empress was distinguished by ostentatious piety. She considered herself the protector of the Orthodox Church and its leader. Catherine skillfully used religion in political interests. Apparently, her faith was not very deep. The biography of Catherine the Great is marked by the fact that she preached religious tolerance in the spirit of the times. It was under this empress that the persecution of the Old Believers was stopped. Protestant and Catholic churches and mosques were erected. Nevertheless, the conversion to another faith from Orthodoxy continued to be severely punished.

Catherine is an opponent of serfdom

Catherine the Great, whose biography interests us, was an ardent opponent of serfdom. She considered him contrary to human nature and inhuman. Quite a few harsh statements on this issue have survived in her papers. Also in them you can find her reasoning about how you can eliminate serfdom. Nevertheless, the Empress did not dare to do anything concrete in this area for fear of another coup and a noble revolt. At the same time, Catherine was convinced that the Russian peasants were spiritually undeveloped, therefore there was a danger in granting them freedom. According to the Empress, the life of the peasants is quite prosperous among the caring landowners.

First reforms

When Catherine ascended the throne, she already had a fairly definite political program. It was based on the ideas of the Enlightenment and took into account the peculiarities of the development of Russia. Consistency, gradualness and consideration of public sentiments were the main principles of the implementation of this program. In the first years of her reign, Catherine II carried out a reform of the Senate (in 1763). His work has become more efficient as a result. In the next year, 1764, Catherine the Great secularized the church lands. The biography for the children of this empress, presented on the pages of school textbooks, will certainly acquaint schoolchildren with this fact. Secularization has significantly replenished the treasury, and also eased the plight of many peasants. Catherine in Ukraine liquidated the hetmanate in accordance with the need to unify local government throughout the state. In addition, she invited German colonists to the Russian Empire to explore the Black Sea and Volga regions.

Foundation of educational institutions and new Code

In the same years, a number of educational institutions were founded, including for women (the first in Russia) - the Catherine School, the Smolny Institute. The Empress announced in 1767 that a special commission was being convened to create a new Code. It consisted of elected deputies, representatives of all social groups of society, except for serfs. For the commission, Catherine wrote the "Order", which is, in fact, a liberal program for the reign of this empress. However, her calls were not understood by the deputies. They argued over the smallest issues. Deep contradictions between social groups were revealed in the course of these discussions, as well as the low level of political culture among many deputies and the conservatism of most of them. The commissioned commission was disbanded at the end of 1768. The empress appreciated this experience as an important lesson that introduced her to the moods of various strata of the population of the state.

Development of legislative acts

After the Russian-Turkish war, which lasted from 1768 to 1774, ended, and the Pugachev uprising was suppressed, a new stage of Catherine's reforms began. The Empress began to develop the most important legislative acts herself. In particular, a manifesto was issued in 1775, according to which it was allowed to start any industrial enterprises without restrictions. Also this year, a provincial reform was carried out, as a result of which a new administrative division of the empire was established. It survived until 1917.

Expanding on the topic "A Brief Biography of Catherine the Great", we note that the Empress in 1785 issued the most important legislative acts. These were certificates of honor to the cities and the nobility. Also, a charter was prepared for state peasants, but political circumstances did not allow it to be put into effect. The main significance of these letters was associated with the implementation of the main goal of Catherine's reforms - the creation of full-fledged estates in the empire based on the model Western Europe... The diploma meant for the Russian nobility the legal consolidation of almost all the privileges and rights that they had.

Recent and unrealized reforms proposed by Catherine the Great

Biography ( summary) the Empress of interest to us is noted for the fact that she carried out various reforms until her death. For example, education reform continued in the 1780s. Catherine the Great, whose biography is presented in this article, created a network based on the classroom system schools in cities. Empress in last years her life she continued to plan a major transformation. Reform of the central government was planned for 1797, as well as the introduction of legislation on the order of succession in the country, the creation of a higher court based on representation from 3 estates. However, Catherine II the Great did not manage to complete an extensive reform program. Her brief biography, however, would be incomplete if we did not mention all this. In general, all these reforms were a continuation of the reforms begun by Peter I.

Catherine's foreign policy

What else is interesting about the biography of Catherine the Great? The Empress, following Peter, believed that Russia should actively act on the world arena, pursue an offensive policy, even to some extent aggressive. After accession to the throne, she broke the allied treaty with Prussia, concluded by Peter III. Thanks to the efforts of this empress, it was possible to restore the Duke E.I. Biron on the throne of Courland. Supported by Prussia, in 1763 Russia achieved the election to the Polish throne of Stanislav August Poniatowski, her protégé. This, in turn, led to a deterioration in relations with Austria due to the fact that she feared the strengthening of Russia and began to incite Turkey to war with her. In general, the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774 was successful for Russia, but the difficult situation inside the country prompted her to seek peace. And for this it was necessary to restore the old relations with Austria. In the end, a compromise was reached. Poland fell victim to him: the first partition was carried out in 1772 by Russia, Austria and Prussia.

The Kyuchuk-Kainardzhiyskiy peace was signed with Turkey, which ensured the independence of the Crimea, beneficial for Russia. Empire in the war of England with the colonies of North America took neutrality. Catherine refused to help the English king with troops. A number of European states have joined the Declaration on Armed Neutrality, created on Panin's initiative. This contributed to the victory of the colonists. In subsequent years, the strengthening of the position of our country in the Caucasus and in the Crimea took place, which ended with the inclusion of the latter in the Russian Empire in 1782, as well as the signing of the Georgievsky treaty with Irakli II, the king of Kartli-Kakheti next year. This ensured the presence of Russian troops in Georgia, and then the annexation of its territory to Russia.

Strengthening authority in the international arena

The new foreign policy doctrine of the Russian government was formed in the 1770s. It was a Greek project. Its main goal was the restoration of the Byzantine Empire and the announcement of the emperor of Prince Konstantin Pavlovich, who was the grandson of Catherine II. Russia in 1779 significantly strengthened its authority in the international arena, participating as a mediator between Prussia and Austria in the Teschen Congress. The biography of Empress Catherine the Great can also be supplemented by the fact that in 1787, accompanied by the court, the Polish king, the Austrian emperor and foreign diplomats, she traveled to the Crimea. It became a demonstration of Russia's military power.

Wars with Turkey and Sweden, further partitions of Poland

The biography of Catherine the Great continued with the fact that she began a new Russian-Turkish war. Russia was now acting in alliance with Austria. Almost at the same time, the war with Sweden also began (from 1788 to 1790), which tried to take revenge after the defeat in the Northern War. The Russian Empire managed to cope with both of these opponents. In 1791 the war with Turkey ended. The Iasi Peace was signed in 1792. He consolidated the influence of Russia in Transcaucasia and Bessarabia, as well as the annexation of Crimea to it. The 2nd and 3rd partitions of Poland took place in 1793 and 1795, respectively. They put an end to Polish statehood.

Empress Catherine the Great, whose brief biography was reviewed by us, died on November 17 (according to the old style - November 6), 1796 in St. Petersburg. So significant is her contribution to Russian history that the memory of Catherine II is preserved in many works of domestic and world culture, including the works of such great writers as N.V. Gogol, A.S. Pushkin, B. Shaw, V. Pikul and others. The life of Catherine the Great, her biography inspired many directors - the creators of such films as "The Caprice of Catherine II", "The Tsar's Hunt", "Young Catherine", "Dreams of Russia", " Russian revolt "and others.