What are the principles of allocating the structure of sociological knowledge. Structure of sociological knowledge (3) - Abstract
Structure of sociological knowledge - This is a certain orderliness of knowledge of society as a dynamically functioning and developing. It appears as a set of interrelated ideas, concepts, views, theories about social processes of different levels.
- a complex system of scientific knowledge about general and specific trends and patterns of development and functioning, various scales, significance, features and forms of manifestation of social systems.
In modern methodology - both in our country, and abroad - scientific knowledge is customary to understand the hierarchically and represent it in the form of a "building" of sociological science consisting of five floors (Fig. 1.1):
- top floor is Scientific picture of the world (philosophical prerequisites);
- fourth - general theory including the categories of the abstract level;
- third - private, or special, theory;
- the second floor is represented by empirical studies;
- nizhny Floor - Applied Studies.
Four upper floors of the sociological "building" takes fundamental sociology, and the last - Applied sociology.Three upper floors - Theoretical sociology. The two lower - empirical and applied research - it is customary to Empirical knowledge.
The highlighted five levels and types of knowledge differ in two parameters - the degree of generalization (abstractness) of the concepts used at the given level, and the degree of knowledge of the knowledge of this level - in other words, the number of studies conducted or created theories.
Scientific picture of the world
The topmost level of sociological knowledge associated with the scientific picture of the world (NKM) is not yet sociological, but rather it has a universal value for all sciences and is philosophical. The NKM includes a combination of the most common theoretical judgments on how the social reality is subject to and what laws, in which society and individuals exist.
According to the degree of generalization of the abstract itself, the scientific picture of the world is, and the most specific knowledge is applied, concerning one object and aimed at solving a specific situation, problems, tasks.
Fig.1.1. Pyramid Levels and Types of Scientific Sociological Knowledge
The number of studies conducted or created theories
According to the degree of prevalence, knowledge is the most rare - also the scientific picture of the world; in each social science There are only few of these paintings. The greatest recognition and impact today have, according to researchers, five dominant paintings of the world and methods of its knowledge: scholastic, mechanistic, statistical, systemic, diatopic.
Within scholastic scientific painting of the world Nature and society are interpreted as a certain cipher in need of reading and decoding using codes whose role is played by myths.
MechanisticThe NKM characterizes nature and society as a mechanism, the machine, all the details of which are carried out strictly designated functions for them.
From the position statisticalNKM Nature and society are treated as an equilibrium of opposing forces (natural, economic, political, cultural, social, socially and personal individual, group).
System Scientific Painting World It will give an idea of \u200b\u200bnature and society as organized systems, subsystems consisting of elements constantly changing, but at the same time ensuring the integrity and resilience of all systems.
DiatropicNKM allows you to see the world multidimensively, polycentrich, changeable.
NKM in sociology is subject to changes that are due to the development of scientific knowledge, the emergence of new directions. Philosophy has a decisive effect on the NKM. Scientific paintings The world is integrated into the culture of a certain era and civilization. The culture of each country will create its own philosophy, which imposes an imprint on the development of sociology.
Nationalociological and private theories of sociology
The painting of the world and much in common. And the first and second reveal the most essential features of social being and fundamental laws of the Company's development. However, in the NKM, fundamental knowledge is built into a strict system not differentiated, not explicitly, and in the overall theory it acts as a clear knowledge. General theories more than NKM: perhaps about two dozen.
Next level of sociological knowledge - (special) sociological theories, Typically, formalized and logically compact models of social processes relating to certain areas of life, social groups and institutions.
Empirical studies in sociology
Empirical studies - These are large-scale studies that meet the most stringent science requirements and aimed at confirmation of private theory. Their main goal is to contribute to the increment of new knowledge, the discovery of new patterns and the detection of unknown social trends. The main purpose of empirical research is not easy to collect and process facts, but to ensure a reliable test of the theory, its verification, to obtain representative (reliable, representative) information. They contribute to the identification of existing contradictions in society and its structures, as well as trends in the development of social processes and phenomena, which is very important for scientific understanding of social reality and solving social problems. These empirical research serve as a basis for the development of recommendations aimed at solving the current and promising tasks of the public and political life of society, parties and movements, various social communities, groups and institutions.
Empirical knowledge of phenomena social Life Forms special science - empirical sociology.
Applied Studies in Sociology
Applied Studies - small-scale, operational and non-resident studies conducted in short time At one facility (firm, bank), designed to learn a specific social problem and develop practical recommendations for its decision.
It is important to know the tools of applied sociology, the goal and tasks. If a sociologist, not knowing this, will bring a fundamental research methodology to the enterprise and will study, for example, the dynamics of value orientations, it will not be understood. Because the practical workers who will act as customers, do not reason in these categories, they speak completely different languages. In front of the applied, in contrast to the academic scientist, there are completely different problems.
For appliers, academic scientists are developed by such standard questionnaires and standard tools for which experience is replicated in different enterprises. It is used in many enterprises for the same purpose - assessing personal and business qualities. And no new knowledge for science is not mined, new knowledge is only for the administration.
Applied research is the research of local events. The purpose of the applied research is not a description of social reality, but its change.
Thousands of empirical studies have been carried out. The number of plants implemented in the banks, cities, microdistricts, etc. Applied research is generally impossible to calculate. As a rule, they are not recorded anywhere, their results are not checked into scientific articles, the only source of information about them serve reports stored in the archives of enterprises or firms.
Fundamental and applied research
Depending on the orientation, divided into fundamental and applied. First Focus on the implementation of purely scientific issues: what is like? (object) and how to learn? (method). Second Aims to solve current social problems of a practical nature and answer the question: what is going to know? Thus, these theories differ not by the object or method, but by what goals and objectives set the researcher - cognitive or practical. If in its study, the sociologist seeks mainly to develop new sociological knowledge, theory, then this case This is a fundamental study that studies society as a system. In contrast to the fundamental sociology, applied sociology acts as a set of problem-oriented research aimed at solving specific social problems arising in certain social subsystems, specific social communities and organizations.
At the same time, it is necessary to emphasize that the division of sociology on fundamental and applied is conditional. The content and that and the other includes the solution of both scientific and practical problems, only the ratio of these problems in them. A sharp distinction or opposition to the fundamental and applied research can make it difficult to develop sociology as a multifaceted science. Fundamental knowledge in science is a relatively small part of the scientific theories proven on the experience of scientific theories and methodological principles that scientists use as a guideline. The rest of the knowledge is the result of current empirical and applied research.
Fundamental science, which develops mainly in the walls of universities and academies of sciences, is usually called academic.
Sociological studies are divided into theoretical and empirical. Such a division is associated with the levels of knowledge (theoretical and empirical) in sociology; The division of sociology for fundamental and applied - with orientation (function) of sociology to actually scientific or practical tasks. Thus, empirical research can be carried out within the framework of both fundamental and applied sociology. If its goal is to build the theory, it relates to the fundamental (on orientation) of sociology, and if it is the development of practical recommendations, then it relates to applied sociology. The study, being empirical in terms of the level of knowledge gained, can be applied but the nature of the task is to transform reality. The same applies to theoretical studies (in terms of knowledge). Consequently, applied studies do not form a special level. These are the same theoretical and empirical studies (in terms of knowledge), the nose applied orientation.
Thus, to establish a tough border between theoretical sociology and empirical is impossible. Each of these levels of sociological knowledge complements the analysis of the studied social phenomena. For example, studying social factors contributing to the preservation and strengthening of a healthy lifestyle of the labor collective, it is impossible to begin an empirical study without the necessary theoretical knowledge, in particular, what a lifestyle is, a healthy lifestyle. Here it is necessary to theoretical explanation and such concepts as a full lifestyle, standard of living, quality of life, lifestyle, living space, vitality and others, as well as what trends in the study of this problem in sociology, etc. Theoretical wornity of all these issues will contribute to finding a valuable empirical material. On the other hand, having received a specific empirical knowledge of social factors that contribute to the conservation and strengthening of a healthy lifestyle of the labor collective, the researcher comes to the conclusions not only a local nature, but also beyond the framework of a single team, which can be complemented and clarified theoretical prerequisites .
So, a categorical apparatus of science is formed on theoretical level. It is mainly used by general scientific methods of knowledge (systemic, modeling, experiment, etc.), as well as the general scientific principles of knowledge (objectivity, historicism, causality, integrity, etc.).
The empirical levels are carried out with facts: collection, systematization, analysis, etc.
Macrosociology and microsociology
There are also macro and microsocyology. Sociology as science has formed and developed in Europe at the beginning as macrosocyological science, focusing on the disclosure of global laws in the development of society and studying the relationship between large social groups and systems. Later, microsociology appeared, exploring typical patterns of behavior, interpersonal relationships mainly a socio-psychological nature. Since then, the development of sociology has gone through two parallel directions.
Macrosociology focuses on the analysis of such concepts as "society", "", "social structure", "mass social processes", "civilization", "", "culture", etc. In contrast to macrosociology, microsocyology examines specific problems associated with the behavior of individuals, their actions, motives that determine the interaction between them.
Microsociology is closely related to the empirical (applied) level of sociological knowledge, and macrosociology with theoretical one. However, both theoretical and empirical levels are present in both theoretical and empirical levels. Macrosociologists (K. Marx, Spencer, E. Durkheim, F. Tennis, P. Sorokin et al.) Actively engaged in empirical studies, and microsociologists substantiated a number of major sociological theories, which include the theory of social exchange (J. Homans et al.), Symbolic Intricationalism (Ch. Kuli, J.G. Mide, J. Baldwin, etc.), Ethnomethodology (Garfinkel, Sax, etc.).
The rapprochement of micro and macrosociology, which is currently observed in science, but the opinion of many scientists, fruitfully affects the development of a qualitatively new level of sociological knowledge.
Sociological knowledge is structured in world literature and IO to other grounds: on the predominance of areas, schools, concepts, paradigms, etc. Among them are academic sociology, dialectical sociology, understanding sociology, phenomenological sociology, etc.
So, sociological knowledge is a complex-structural, multi-level, polytobraft area of \u200b\u200bscientific knowledge of complex social phenomena and processes, on the patterns of formation and development of large and small social groups and communities, as a whole social system. All levels of sociological knowledge organically interact with each other, forming a single and holistic structure.
Question 1. The role of sociology in the Social Sciences system.
The connection of sociology with other public sciences can be described in two ways. On the one hand, it is undoubtedly, sociology uses information obtained within the framework of other disciplines: for example, indicators of economic growth (information from economists), data on fertility and mortality (from demographers), etc. However, on the other hand, it should be noted that sociology enriches other science with conclusions resulting from sociological studies. For example, sociologists can analyze the social consequences of economic growth or draw conclusions regarding the social causes and consequences of a low birth rate, complementing economic and demographic information.
Thus, sociology is an integrating, interdisciplinary science, which contains the basics of knowledge of a number of natural, social and humanitarian disciplines. At the same time, it is undoubtedly connected and is influenced by natural Sciences: mathematicians, demographic, economic and social statistics, informatics that complement it in the process of studying all spheres of life of society, enrich its tools and thus contribute to the emergence of independent areas in sociology, such as sociogiography, sociomedicine, sociobiology, etc. These are new scientific directions , appeared at the junction of sociology and other sciences, contributing to the explanation and forecasting of events and social media processes.
Sociology, like many sciences, was delayed from philosophy. And even after the sociology in the face of O. Kont and E. Dürkheim proclaimed its independence from philosophy as genuine Society Science, philosophy continued to play a prominent role in sociological surveys. Social philosophy - section of philosophy dedicated to the understanding of the qualitative peculiarity of society in its difference from nature. It analyzes the problems of the meaning and purpose of the existence of society. Social philosophy and sociology has a very wide area of \u200b\u200bthe coincidence of the object of study. Their difference is more clearly manifested in the subject matter. The subject sphere of socio-philosophical is a study of public life, first of all, from the point of view of solving ideological problems, the central place among which is occupied by the meaningful problems. An even more difference between sociology and social philosophy is found in the social research method. Independent development of sociology is precisely due to the fact that it began to actively develop in the analysis of social processes quantitative methods using complex mathematical procedures, including the theory of probability, collecting and analyzing empirical data, the establishment of statistical patterns, has developed certain empirical research procedures. At the same time, sociology relied on the achievement of statistics, demographics, psychology and other disciplines that study society and human.
Question 2. Object and subject of sociology.
Sociology (from Lat. Society and Greek. - Word, concept, doctrine) - Science on the laws of the formation, functioning and development of society, social relations and social communities.
The object of sociological knowledge is society. Social reality is the object of sociological science. Special distinctive feature This reality M. Weber identified the conscious interaction of people: "Waiting for expectation." A person with sufficient confidence expects other people from him expect and ready to respond to his actions as it expects.
M. Deber. I wrote that the subject of sociology is the social actions that it should understand and explain.
The subject of the study of sociology is special, specific laws and patterns.
Object of sociology - social reality, which is studied by special methods to increase the level of stability of society. The subject is the perspective under which social reality is investigated (at an angle of functioning roles and statuses, groups and institutions, social relations and types of culture).
Question 3. Sociology functions.
1. Cognitive function. This feature is inherent in any science. It consists in obtaining new knowledge, information and patterns relating to the social life of society.
2. Prognostic function to predict trends and directions for the development of social processes.
3. Organizational development of organizational measures to implement sociological technology, its implementation and implementation.
4. Social designing the definition of ways to design a social process.
5. Management definition of the main directions of improving the efficiency of activities.
6. Instrumental definition of methods for studying social reality, determination of methods for collecting, processing and analyzing primary sociological information.
Question 4. The structure of sociological knowledge. Social laws. Paradigm of sociological knowledge.
Structure of sociological knowledge- This is a combination of empirical and theoretical material obtained as a result of collecting practical information, research, sociological experiments, surveys, studying public opinion. It is formed during the logical generalization and interpretation of the experimental data obtained. Its structure includes empirical data, the theory of middle links and general theories.
Empirical base Sociological knowledgeincludes grouped and generalized social facts. These include the characteristics of mass consciousness - opinions, assessments, judgments, beliefs; properties of mass behavior; Separate events, social interaction states
Special sociological theoriesreveal two main types of social relations: between the public system as a whole and this sphere of public life. Special theories formulate only probabilistic statements, and their confirmation must be proved logically or in fact.
General sociological theories- the result of combining special sociological theories and their conclusions.
Social law - These are significant, sustainable, repetitive relations between social phenomena and processes, primarily in the social activities of people or their actions. Two groups of social laws should be distinguished.
First group - These are laws operating throughout the history of the development of society.
Second group - These are laws that arise from previously established circumstances and in which the leading trend of the development of society is manifested, due to the objective patterns of its activities and development.
The essence of social laws is that they determine the relationship between various individuals and communities, manifested in their activities. It is a relationship between peoples, nations, classes, socio-demographic and socio-professional groups, a city and a village, as well as between society and labor collective, society and family, society and personality. Laws differ in time of their action. General laws operate in all social systems (for example, the law of value and commodity-money relations). The action of specific laws is limited to one or more social systems (for example, laws related to the transition from one type of society to another or the period of primary capital accumulation).
You can highlight five paradigms
1. Paradigm of social facts. There is a social reality in it through the prism. social structures, institutions and their functions.
2. Paradigm of social definitions. Her origins have the work of the German sociologist Max Weber. Researchers working under this paradigm believe that social phenomena can only be understood on the basis of the meanings that people attach to actions, situations, incentives when interacting with each other.
3. Paradigm of social behavior.The behavior of individuals in social space understood as a system of social supporters (penalties - penalties), and social structures The interactions that have developed in the process of exchange relationships.
4. Psychological paradigm Developed under the influence of the psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud, who considered social life through the prism of the conflict structure "It - I am above-I" inside the individual and between him and society.
5. Paradigm of socio-economic determinism Presented by the Marxist Social Concept (K. Marx, F. Engels, V. Plekhanov, V. I. Lenin). In the Marxist theory, social reality is considered as a set of social relations that develop in the process of jointly vital activity of people. The focus of its attention is subject to public economic formations, the change of which is determined primarily by changes in the method of production, as well as the prospects for the transformation of society in the communist basis.
Plan
Introduction
2. The structure of sociological knowledge and its levels
3. Sociology functions
4. Methods of sociology
5. Place of sociology in the Social and Human Science System
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
In the mass consciousness, sociology is often associated with the conduct of public surveys and the study of public opinion. This is facilitated by numerous television programs, articles in newspapers and magazines, in which the results of sociological studies are given, which characterize the distribution of people's opinions regarding a particular event, data on the degree of support to the voters of various political parties, about satisfaction or dissatisfaction of respondents with the work, standard of living, government policy etc. All this creates the image of sociology as an applied science that promotes the solution to the most topical problems of our public life.
IN last years Sociology has won wide recognition and ranked lasting among other sciences. She proved its right to exist as an independent scientific discipline. And this is not by chance, because sociology studies a person and society in numerous points of their mutual contact. She covers human experience, invites us to explore such aspects of the social world, which we often ignore, do not notice or accept as tribute. Studying sociology, we can better understand how the human society is arranged, where the power is concentrated, what feelings are managed by our behavior, and how our society has become what it is today. Sociology gives a unique opportunity to open the veil, tightly hiding the primary social life, and thereby overcome the conviction that things are always like that they seem to us. In other words, this science is arming us a special form of consciousness that helps better understand those social forces that restrain or, on the contrary, release us. Therefore, in the words of P. Berger, sociology - "liberating science. It clarifies the inaccessible aspects of human life and opens the window to the social world, which we often do not notice or understand whele.
1. Object and subject of sociology
Sociology has existed over one and a half centuries. During this time, various flows, directions and schools took shape in it. Each of them identified their subject area and managed to achieve certain success in its framework. However, at present, and all over the formation of sociology, there was a complex process of deepening and determining its subject. What is this due? The fact is that we live in an era of intense and deep change, in the era of the formation of a new civilization and new relationships between people. Today, humanity is painfully looking for answers to many global questions: What is society? How does it function? where are we going? The answers to them should be only specific, only essentially constructive. Moreover, it is necessary for a single sociological knowledge, as it is about the fate of the entire civilization.
The subject of sociology should certainly be theoretical understanding of the controversial integrity of the modern world. "Dramatic" of this science is that it should explore and explain the nature of the state of mankind, it is for this purpose that it originated today.
Its object is the society of modern type. At the same time, the holistic study of the object (society) does not make it possible to cover all its properties, faces and relationships. Sooner or later, scientists have the need to focus on consideration only by its individual parties, which constitute the subject of sociological science, i.e., the subject of sociology is everyday life ordinary people
The structure of sociological knowledge and its levels
So, the sociology, due to the scale and depth of its subject, began to develop immediately in many areas, which quickly turned into a new quality and turned into independent scientific disciplinesOr in fairly closed schools with their methodological plants. As a result, sociological knowledge gained a fairly branched structure in which some directions often intersect with others,
In all developed sciences, knowledge is made to differentiate according to three grounds: in content, i.e., according to the specifics of the object being studied, in form (according to methods and sources of obtaining), and on functions (intended purpose). In this sense, three main aspects can be distinguished in sociology:
2) formal;
3) functional.
From the point of view of what is studied, the subject sociology is distinguished, the subject of which society acts (in all its wealth and diversity), and metasociology, focusing on the study of the sociological science itself (determining its specificity, places in the system of social and humanities, and development research methods, identifying patterns of the process of historical evolution, etc.).
Subsection Sociology, in turn, has three main levels:
1. Nationalociological theory (general sociology) engaged in the study of society as a holistic system, identifying the most common laws of its functioning and development. Its methodological base is social philosophy.
2. Private sociological theories ("theories of average rank") presented in sociology a whole series of special (sectoral) disciplines studying relatively large and independent social reality fragments: the economy, labor, politics, culture, religion, family, etc. Theoretical and methodological basis is a sociological theory.
3. Specific sociological studies of various social phenomena and processes ("Sociography"). Their direct theoretical foundation is private sociological theories in the relevant research regions.
According to the level of scientific generalization, that is, according to methods and sources of obtaining knowledge, it is customary to allocate theoretical and empirical sociology.
Theoretical sociology is aimed at the knowledge of the inner entities of social reality, i.e. the laws governing it. Empirical - to know the external manifestations of this reality. In addition, theorists as a basis for building their conceptual models use theories and speculative conclusions. Concepts put forward by theoretical sociology differ high degree abstraction. Sociologists empirica are based on the facts on the results of the studies. The empirical level is the level of facts, opinions, personal data, their generalizations and the formation of primary theories.
The nature of the knowledge gained by them differs. Theoretical sociology gives a causal explanation on the basis of established laws, is engaged in predicting the possible course of events. Empirical - seeks to give as much as possible description of the collected data.
From the point of view of the purpose of the obtained knowledge, the fundamental and applied sociology distinguish.
Fundamental sociology is aimed at increasing scientific knowledge, applied sociology - to obtain a practical result, solving a specific social task. The fundamental science is engaged in building global concepts that explain why the world is arranged so, and not otherwise, and applied - is intended to solve specific problems, for example, explain why in the region voters preferred this candidate.
All listed levels of sociological knowledge are closely intertwined between themselves and constitute a single science - sociology.
3. Sociology functions
Sociology thousands of threads are associated with society. This determines the many social functions performed by it.
Theoretical and informative - the function that any science performs. Sociology at all levels and in all its structural elements Provides the increment of a new knowledge of various areas of social life, and also reveals patterns and prospects for the further development of society. Sociology seeks to draw up the most complete picture of social relations and processes in modern world. These may be knowledge of the main social problems of the development of modern society or information on the processes occurring in different areas, namely, about changing the social structure, family, national relations, etc. It is obvious that without specific knowledge about the processes occurring inside Separate social communities, it is impossible to ensure efficient management.
Applied function is manifested in the fact that a significant part of sociological research is focused on solving practical problems, to fulfill social order.
As part of this function, allocate:
A) function social controlThe execution of which suggests that sociological studies provide information for monitoring, withdrawing social tensions and prevent crisis situations.
B) Prognostic function. We are talking about the development of scientifically based forecasts for the development of social processes in the future. When a sociologist examines the real problem and seeks to identify ways to solve it, he, naturally, is movable or necessary to show the prospect and final resultwhich costs it. Consequently, sociologist predicts the development of the social process.
C) and finally the function of social planning. The results of sociological studies are used to create projects in various spheres of public life. This applies to the development of targeted integrated programs for the development of individual areas of social life, industries, regions, etc. Since the 1970s, Soviet sociologists have taken an active part in the compilation of comprehensive plans for the social development of enterprises, areas, cities, regions, regions.
Ideological function. Research results can be used in the interests of any groups to achieve their own goals. They can serve as a means of manipulating the behavior of people, as well as a tool for the formation of certain stereotypes of behavior, creating a system of values \u200b\u200band social preferences. History indicates that in most social revolutions and reforms, it is the sociological concepts of one or another who performed leading in public development. John's sociological ideas played an important role in the revolution of 1688 when establishing a liberal-democratic regime in England. Francois Voltaire works, Jean-Jacques Russo played a transformative role in France. For a long period, the ideology of Marxism performed the leading intellectual direction in Russia. Racist ideology has become the basis of Nazism and the Third Reich in Germany.
Enlightenment (educational) function. Sociology is a powerful tool for self-knowledge of society, a means of educating and formation of masses. Sociological ideas, research results, loyal publications, are able to force people and a new look at themselves on themselves, to see themselves from the side of sociology and think about their own being.
So, sociology has formed quite recently. That is why the subject of its study has not yet been determined clearly and clearly and causes numerous disputes in professional circles. Moreover, the need for new science is justified, as social structures and social relations are increasingly complicated and demanded a scientific description and analysis to predict the development trends as society as a whole and individual elements.
Methods of sociology
Sociology uses not only typical abstract-theoretical methods (system-categorical analysis of the object), but also a combination of specific empirical methods.
Observation: the study of society, public opinion, public sentiment, social processes in their natural state. Observation can be external, third-party, when a sociologist is not a member of a social process itself, and internal, "included", when the sociologist itself becomes a member of the studied team or the subject of the social process.
Observation gives primary information, which can then be analyzed, evaluated, compared, etc.
Analysis of statistical materials: study of documentation, reports, certificates, protocols, statistics, press materials, actual data, etc., i.e. not direct being of the social object, and its reflections in primary (usually verbal) documentation. Using statistical materials, sociologist reproduces the state of the object in the categories of sociology and identifies the trends in the development of the object.
Interview: This is a study in the form of a given oral poll of the subjects of society in order to obtain a "sociological picture of the object". As social constituents, the respondents for interviews are elected, as a rule, typical representatives of a social group, professionals experts, famous leaders. The results of the interview can represent individually personal interest (interviews with a well-known artist or athlete) or a social and typological (the opinions of typical representatives of some group).
Questioning: This is a form of a written survey of the subjects of society (groups, communal) in order to obtain a cumulative presentation on the status and functioning of the social object. Questionnaire or questionnaire includes a series of open (without a finite version of possible answers) or closed (with a finite set of answers) questions. Social modeling: It is associated with the study of the social object not in its natural, natural form, but in the form of functional, structural or attribute models. The model is the heuristic substituent of nature. As a rule, with social modeling uses computers, information and mathematical models of the object. Social experiment: This is the study of the social object in its natural or model form in controlled, artificial conditions.
There are also other methods for obtaining sociological information, but they, as a rule, are modifications called. In addition, it is necessary to take into account that each of the methods has many variations. For example, such types of survey are distinguished as selective, probormal, group, correspondence, full-time, panel, disposable, press, direct, distributing, solid, expert, etc. In each case, the researcher determines one or another method and its options. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the complementarity of methods to avoid errors.
Each method of specific sociological research involves a set of necessary procedures, technologies, techniques and for effective research, and to obtain adequate results.
· Analysis is the knowledge of the object on the basis of the study of its parts, its components constituting.
· Synthesis - the knowledge of the integrity of the object by combining knowledge of its components, elements, subsystems. Synthesis as it turns out and continues the analysis, providing a holistic, systemic, integrative knowledge of the object as a whole.
· Experiment - study of an object in artificially controlled conditions.
· Extrapolation is the knowledge of the object by transferring knowledge from one (studied) object to another.
· Modeling is a study of an object not in its immediate form, but based on the study of its models.
· Induction - receipt of general conclusion from private knowledge.
· Deduction is to remove private knowledge about objects from general provisions, parcels.
· The system method is the study of an object as a system consisting of the composition (combination of components) and structure (method of component links).
Features of sociology compared to other sociogumanitarian sciences (demography, psychology, history, philosophy, cultural studies, anthropology).
Psychology. Studying the behavior of people, sociology is closely in contact with psychology. Common problems are concentrated in the framework of social psychology. Philosophy Provides sociology to the cognition of the most common laws of society. Geography associated with sociology when the behavior of people, ethnic communities is due to the living environment. It matters whether people live on the ocean, rivers, in the mountains, in the desert to explain the nature of social communities. There are theories connecting social conflicts with a period of nervous sun, cosmic factors. FROM history Sociology is connected with the explanation historic roots Social phenomena. There is also a sociology of history when sociological problems are studied on the material of past centuries. For example, social relationships, singularities of social behavior are studied. Sociology is associated with various species Activities through their specific methods of studying public opinion.
Subject of sociology.
The subject is the sides, communications and relationship of the object, which are studied by this science. Society as a holistic organism, social. Mechanism, its functioning and development. Under the subject matter of the study usually understand the combination of characteristics, qualities, properties of an object that are of particular interest for this science. The subject of sociology is the social life of society, i.e. the complex of social phenomena arising from the interaction of people and communities. The concept of "social" is decoded as relating to people's life in the process of their relationship. The vital activity of people is implemented in society in the three traditional areas (economic, political, spiritual) and one unconventional - social. Three first give a horizontal section of society, the fourth is a vertical, implying division on subjects of public relations (ethnos, families, etc.). These elements of the social device in the process of their interaction in traditional areas and make up the basis of social life, which exists in all its variety, is reconstructed and changes only in the activities of people.
Society can be represented as a system of interacting and interrelated communities and institutions, forms and methods of social control. Personality manifests itself through the totality of social roles and the status that she plays or occupies in these social communities and institutes. At the same time, the status is understood as the position of a person in society, which defines access to education, wealth, power, and so on. Thus, sociology studies social life, i.e. the interaction of social actors on issues related to their social status.
It is precisely a combination of such actions forms a social process as a whole, and in it you can allocate some general trends that are sociological laws. The difference between sociological laws from mathematical, physical, chemical is that the first is approximate and inaccurate, they can occur or do not happen, because completely depend on the will and actions of people and are probabilistic. You can predict events in advance, manage them and calculate possible alternatives, choosing the preferred option. The role of sociology and sociological studies is immeasurably increasing in crisis situations when public opinion is important, its reorientation and change of ideals and paradigms becomes important.
Sociology studies the social structure of society, social groups, cultural system, type of personalities, repetitive social processes occurring in people of the change, while making emphasis on identifying alternatives to development. Sociological knowledge act as the unity of theory and practice, empiricals. Theoretical studies There are an explanation of social reality on the basis of laws, empirical research is a specific detailed information on the processes occurring in society (observations, surveys, comparisons).
4. Sociology functions as science: description, explanation, prediction of social processes, social technology.
It should serve as a conversion of society, social reforms, contribute to optimal social management.
Without sociological research, public opinion will not be able to fulfill the control function, consulting characteristic of it. Sociology gives public opinion institutional status, thanks to which it becomes the institution of civil society. Sociology allows you to understand the processes occurring in society. An important feature of modern society is the awareness of the goals and the consequences of its activities, an understanding of the essence and properties of society, which allows you to consciously relate to their activities. It is distinguished by modern society From the traditional, in which social processes are spontaneous and unconscious. In this way, the role of sociology in society is the following . 1. Sociology contributes to the democratic transformation of the Company due to the study of public opinion and contributing to its institution. 2. Sociology contributes to a deeper awareness of the essence of public processes, which allows you to consciously approach social activities. 3. Sociology increases the level of rationality of social activities at all levels social organization.
The structure of sociological knowledge.
Sociology, like science, has a certain structure. Depending on the content of sociology consists of three parts 1. General Sociology (society, as a holistic organism, patterns in it). 2. History of sociology and modern sociological theories (Special level. Social. Theories - intermediate). Works on the sociology of past years is not an archive, but an important source of scientific knowledge, information about important public problems. Different sociological theories of modern times allow different interpretation problems in different ways, finding new faces, aspects of studied phenomena. If earlier existed the only true, infallible Marxist-Lenin sociology, now there is no truth in the last instance. Different theories compete with each other, striving more precisely and fully reflect reality. 3. Methods of sociological research (The level of specific social analysis). In this part, tasks are considered as which ways to conduct research.
Sociology (Shinyeva O.V., Gonoshilina I.G., Zosimenko I.A.)
In general, each social science performs three basic functions: cognitive, managerial and ideological (ideological). However, taking into account the specifics of the object and the subject of each science, they can be specified in a structural and meaningful plan.
Thus, the cognitive function of sociology consists of: a) in the specifics of studying social processes, taking into account their specific content in a real situation; b) in ways and ways to transform (change, improvement); c) in the development of theory and methods of sociological research, in the methodology and technique of collecting, processing and analyzing sociological information. All subsequent functions (and their list of different authors are different), as it were, complement, reveal the content of the cognitive function.
Prognostic function, for example, is intended to identify prospects, trends in the development of a social phenomenon (say, unemployment, tax system, the state of crime in the country, etc.), forecast the possible state of the object in a specific predicted period (in the nearest and long-term perspective , in certain years, in decades, etc.).
The social design and design function is to develop models of a particular social organization, social process, various elements with an emphasis on optimal functioning.
A peculiar continuation of this feature is an organizational and technological function designed to create social technologies (for example, tax fees) as a system of funds and the procedure for achieving the desired result, develop the necessary organizational measures of its implementation.
The management function of sociology is expressed: a) in the development of recommendations, proposals, methods, evaluations of the various characteristics of the subject (for example, law enforcement) and the object (various individuals and groups of deviant behavior), employees for the preparation and adoption of management decisions; b) in social planning and related development of social indicators and regulations; c) in sociological training of personnel in order to understand the social transformations and reasonable effective participation in these processes (for example, the creation of social services in law enforcement agencies in the system of tax services, etc.).
An important role is played by the instrumental function of sociology, consisting of developing research tools for the search, registration, measurement, processing, analysis and generalization of primary sociological information.
Especially it should be said about the worldview (ideological) function of sociology, especially since the implementation of the content of the already considered functions largely depends on it (ideological function).
The fact is that knowledge, the study of society, social processes, even the use of certain methods, techniques and procedures is rally or involuntarily depends on whose interests this is being cognition; Interests of which social groups expresses a particular sociologist (or group, team of sociologists); whether his (their) positions coincide with the objective course of development; Whether he is striving (they) to explore an objective picture or not.
In other words, in the study of social phenomena and processes before sociologist, there is a dilemma of combining the positions of a scientist (as an objective researcher) and as a citizen (occupying certain civil positions that do not always correspond to the principle of objectivity). The development of sociology in our country and abroad, the current state of sociology in Russia, the results of specific sociological research (for example, ratings of political parties and movements in periods of election campaigns) show that the worldview positions often prevail on the principles of objective knowledge of certain phenomena and processes. The authority of sociological studies, sociology as a whole will depend on the realization of primarily the cognitive function of this science, designed to give an objective picture of the studied reality.
Basics of sociology and political science (P.D. Pavlenok, E.V. Kukanova)
Functions of sociology
The diversity of sociology relationships with the life of society, its social purpose is determined primarily with the functions that it performs. One of the most important functions of sociology, like any other science, is cognitive. Sociology at all levels and in all its structural elements provides primarily an increase in new knowledge about various areas of social life, reveals patterns and prospects for the development of society. It serves as fundamental theoretical surveys that generate the methodological principles of knowledge of social processes and generalizing significant actual material and directly empirical studies supplying this science is a rich actual material, specific information about certain areas of social life.
Characteristic feature of sociology - the unity of theory and practice. A significant part of sociological research is focused on solving practical problems. In this regard, the first place is applied sociology function.
Sociological studies provide specific information to implement effective social control over social processes. This manifests the function social control.
The practical orientation of sociology is also expressed in the fact that it is able to develop scientifically based predictions on the trends in the development of social processes in the future. This manifests itself prognostic function. It is especially important to have such a forecast in the transitional period of the Company's development. In this regard, sociology is capable of: to determine what the range of possibilities, probabilities, opens up before participants of the events at a given historical stage; submit alternative scenarios of future processes related to each of the selected solutions; Calculate the likely losses for each of the alternative options, including side effects, as well as long-term consequences.
Great importance In the life of society, the use of sociological studies for planning the development of various spheres of social life. Social planning is developed in all countries of the world, regardless of social systems. It covers the widest areas, starting by certain processes of the life of the world community, individual regions and countries and ending with the social planning of the life of cities, villages, individual enterprises and teams.
Functions of sociological knowledge
Structure and functions of sociological knowledge
The internal structure of sociology
Sociology is divided into many research areas - areas of interests of sociologists, for example, the study of youth crime. The region is formed when the specific problem of sociology is viewed from the standpoint of a certain sociological perspective, for example, interactionism.
Under the intradisciplinary matrix of sociology means a combination of sectoral directions of sociology, thematic areas and areas that have been mediated in the process of differentiation of sociological knowledge and today are complexly branched system. For example, in the framework of sociology in the 20th century, such industries have stood out such as sociology of labor and the sociology of the city, the sociology of culture and the sociology of religion. The first attempt to classify areas belongs to O. Congest. He divided sociology to "social statics" and "social dynamics". This classification was held for quite a long time.
The next stage is associated with the advent of sociology as academic discipline in America. The principle of a new classification is the branching of sociology into a plurality of subject areas. The idea of \u200b\u200ballocating and researching areas in sociology belongs to E. Durkheim, when he was the publisher - editor of the largest magazine. In the next volume of the Sociological Yearbook for 1902, Durkheim and the editorial board presented a classification of publications in sociology. The following divisions of general sociology were allocated: the sociology of religion, legal and moral sociology, criminal sociology and moral statistics, economic sociology, social morphology, aesthetic sociology, technology, language and war.
The emergence of new problems and new areas of research is the result of the growth of the theory and method. Problems of immigration in the United States, and then dark-skinned minorities influenced the formation of two new regions - the study of races and ethical relations - more than the development of the theory of the theory of culture and intergroup relations.
To complication internal structure Sociological knowledge is conducting a specialization process. Inside, each specialty was divided into a number of pre-schools. So, within the social structure (Morphology of the Company), specialization arose social stratification and social mobility. New areas appeared, specializing in social institutions: economics and society, political sociology, industrial sociology, sociology of education, religion, medicine, law, leisure and sports, science, culture, mass communications and public opinion. In the framework of the sociology of culture today, such directions such as cinema sociology, theater sociology, the sociology of the mass (popular) culture, the sociology of reading are existed. As part of economic sociology, labor sociology, employment sociology and unemployment, market sociology, bank sociology, management sociology, sociology of organizations.
Empirical and theoretical components of sociological knowledge
As we found out, the intradisciplinary matrix of sociology is a combination of industries that cover all the thematic field studied by sociological science. An intradisciplinary sociology matrix makes the following source elements.
Empirical study - fundamental studyconducted in accordance with the requirements scientific method and aimed at confirmation of a private theory. The main goal is the increment of scientific knowledge, the opening of new patterns and the detection of unknown social trends. The preparation of empirical research leaves 3 to 10 years. A numerous team is working on its organization. It is carried out only by academic sociologists. Example: intercountry, national, regional studies, etc. The basis of the empirical study is to obtain a representative (reliable and representative) information.
Applied research is an operational study conducted at one facility (enterprise, bank, village) in a short time with the aim of social diagnostics of the situation, explanations of a specific phenomenon (process) and preparation of practical recommendations. Example: Reducing personnel workers in the enterprise, improving the motivation of managers. To solve such a task, the sociologist should attract any private theories, a limited circle of empirical data, effective technologies and methods, after which it is to attach all this to a specific object. This is the meaning of an applied research - the application of fundamental science to practical problems. Applied research does not aim at the increment of new knowledge, the opening of new theories, it applies already well-known knowledge, decorated in the so-called typical techniques, that is, social technologies. Methodology Goal (Group Assessment), used to assess the personal and business qualities of employees, is an example of social technologies that apply to dozens and hundreds of the same type of objects, and is a commercial product having a certain price.
The structure of sociology in terms of direct use of knowledge: fundamental theoretical and applied empirical science. Fundamental theoretical sociology is responsible for questions, which is familiar with (the definition of the object, the subject of science) and how to learn (the main methods of sociology). It includes the theories of the generalociological level.
Applied sociology studies and offers ways to influence social reality, social community. It gives an idea of \u200b\u200bthe real processes of social development, is engaged in predicting, designing, forming social policy, developing recommendations for social management practices.
Theoretical sociology involves obtaining a new knowledge, description, explanation, understanding of social development processes: the development of a conceptual sociological research model; knowledge of social reality; Transformation of social reality. In the framework of theoretical sociology there are various social and private sociological theories.
Applied sociology provides for finding funds for socially significant purposes, practical implementation theoretical sociology; Implementation of social management, implementation of social planning and forecasting methods.
An intradisciplinary matrix can be represented as a diverging root of the "knowledge tree" (Fig. 1.3).
Structure of the sociological system of knowledge
Fig. 1.3. Structure of the sociological system of knowledge
The birth of new industries is very rarely dictated by the needs of science itself. A much more frequent incentive is a society in which certain social problems come to the fore for different periods. Labor subjects were led to Soviet times and the most active development was obtained by the Sociology of Labor, and in the 90s, due to the growth of the property bundle of society, the fall in the material well-being of the population was wide development of poverty and inequality (included in the thematic direction "Social Structure and Stratification ), which in socialism never talked.
Sociological structure - Reflection of social development
There is not only close relationship between the level and complexity of social knowledge, the level and complexity of the development of society, but also direct compliance. Sociology can be considered an objective mirror of the structure and dynamics of society. American sociology, the number of industries and the degree of scientific issues, reflect the level of advancement american society On the way of technical and social progress. The same can be told about Russian and any other national sociology.
If we compare the structure of the United States and Russia, then we will see not only similarities, but also serious differences. This is because Russia and the United States are at different historical stages of development and belong to different types societies. One of the indicators of the level of development of the country is the relationship between urban and rural population. In the first half of the 20th century, Western Europe and the United States were countries with the predominance of the urban population, and Russia remained an agrarian country, so the first were transferred to the industrial stage, and Russia was in the pre-industrial phase. Movement, backlog or transition to new phase accompanied by a change in the spectrum of those social topics that studies sociological science in a particular country. Problems of the working class, urban crime, poverty and poverty European sociologists studied in the middle and late XIX. in., In the USA - at the beginning of the XX century. (Chicago school), in Russia - in the middle of the XX century. (Sociology of the working class) and at the end of the XX century. (crime, poverty and poverty). If in the USSR in the 70-80s an active industry was the Sociology of Labor (industrial sociology), then in the USA and Western Europe This industry has already passed into the background, since these countries switched to the post-industrial phase. At the beginning of the 20th century, economic sociology is actively declared in Russia, and today it is the leading industry. Together with it, sociology of management and organizations, social inequality sociology is popular.
Functions of sociology
The number and list of sectors of national sociology, the level of their development and the time of appearance reflect the movement of the country along the path of technical and social progress. Developing in various directions, exploring the problems current for society, sociological science is implementing essential functions. These functions are divided into two large groups: theoretical and applied. The first includes cognitive, instrumental and organizational and technological functions, the decisive tasks of developing the theory and methodology for the study of social reality. To the second - prognostic, managerial and social design, contributing to the adoption of new decisions and the substantiation of the prospects for the development of society. The specific content of sociologists in the framework of these functions is shown in Figure 1.4.
Fig. 1.4. The main functions of sociology
Modern sociology as a science of social laws of the development of society performs quite wide functions that express the diversity of sociology relations with the life of society and its social purpose.
1. Cognitive function.
Sociology studies and explains the patterns of social development at various levels of the social system. The implementation of cognitive function also includes the development of theory and methods of sociological research, techniques for collecting and processing sociological information.
2. Prognostic function.
Based on the knowledge of the laws of social development, sociology is able to build short-term, medium-and long-term forecasts in the field of demographics, social structures, urbanization, standard of living, election campaigns, etc. Such forecasts are the basis for developing recommendations for political and social management practices.
Sociology contributes to the definition possible paths and options for the development of processes and phenomena, as well as timing and consequences. The sociological foresight is based on scientific analysis Public situation and with a fairly high degree of accuracy can predict the state of the phenomenon in the future.
3. Social design function.
The task of social design includes the development of optimal models not only the organization of various social communities, for example, a labor collective, a new enterprise, a new city, political party Or movement, but also management to achieve the goals. In countries with a developed civil society, most professionally trained sociologists are engaged in such work.
4. Socio-technological function.
It includes the execution of a dual task:
Creation of social development services in enterprises. These services find out the reasons for the flow of personnel, study the socio-psychological situation in labor collectives, contribute to the formation of primary groups, participate in the management of social conflicts, etc.;
Social invention within social engineering, when, on the basis of studying the patterns of the functioning of a certain psychological situation in social community, sociologists offer optimal ways to organize its organization (youth housing cooperatives, family-type children's home, student building detachments, etc.).
5. Management function.
Without sociological training and sociological knowledge, the management in modern conditions is almost impossible. For example, any change in the mode of operation of the labor collective is pointless to start without analyzing unwanted social consequences, otherwise the scheme is triggered: they wanted it better, and it turned out as always.
In countries with a developed civil society, many enterprises operate special services of human relations. During the reform period, there was a need for specialists of a new type: social workers, social managers.
