Generally accepted model of the universe. Cosmological models of the Universe
Introduction The structure of the universe in antiquity
3Heliocentric model of the Universe. Cosmological models of the Universe
1Kosmology
2Stationary model of the Universe
3Non-stationary model of the Universe
4Modern research cosmological models of the Universe. Nobel Prize for the opening of the accelerated expansion of the Universe
5The Mattery.
6The Energy
Conclusion
Literature
Introduction
The universe as a whole is the subject of special astronomical science - cosmology having an ancient history. Its origins go to antiquity. Cosmology has long been under significant influence of the religious worldview, being not so much the subject of knowledge, how much is faith.
Starting from the XIX century. Cosmological problems - not the case of faith, but the subject of scientific knowledge. They are solved with the help of scientific concepts, ideas, theories, as well as instruments and tools that make it possible to understand what the structure of the Universe and how it has been formed. In the XX century There was significant progress in the scientific understanding of the nature and evolution of the universe as a whole. Of course, an understanding of these problems is still far from its completion, and, undoubtedly, the future will lead to new great coups in the views taken now on the picture of the universe. Nevertheless, it is important to note that here we are dealing with science, with rational knowledge, and not with beliefs and religious beliefs.
The relevance of this work is due, on the one hand, great interest in the structure of the Universe in modern science, on the other hand, its insufficiently designed, as well as attention to the universe in modern world.
Object of study: Universe.
Subject of research: Models of the Universe structure.
The purpose of the work: to consider modern cosmological models of the Universe.
To achieve the goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:
)Analyze literature on the course of general physics and astronomy, due to the choice of the subject of the study.
)Trace the history of cosmological studies.
)Consider modern cosmological models.
)Pick up illustrative material.
Course work consists of introduction, three chapters, conclusion and bibliography. Chapter 1 is devoted to the history of the structure of the Universe, Chapter 2 considers the cosmological models of the Universe, Chapter 3 opens up modern research of cosmological models, the conclusion summarizes the results of the work done.
Chapter 1. The structure of the Universe in antiquity
.1 Pyrocentric model of the Universe
The path to understanding the position of our planet and the humanity living on it in the universe was very difficult and sometimes very dramatic. In antiquity it was natural to believe that the Earth is stationary, flat and is located in the center of the world. It seemed that in general the whole world was created for the sake of man. Such ideas were called anthropocentrism (from Greek. Antropos - man). Many ideas and thoughts that were further affected in modern scientific ideas about nature, in particular in astronomy, originated in Ancient Greece, in a few centuries to our era. It is difficult to list the names of all thinkers and their ingenious guesses. An outstanding mathematician Pythagoras (VI century BC. E.) was convinced that "the world rules the world." It is believed that it was Pythagoras first that the Earth, like all other celestial bodies, has a spherical shape and is in the Universe without support. Pythagoreans offered a pyrocentric model of the universe, in which the stars, the sun, the moon and six planets turn around the central fire (Gesty). In order to get the sacred number - ten - spheres, the sixth planet was declared opposite (Antichton). Both the sun and the moon, on this theory, shone the reflected light of the gesty. It was the first mathematical system of the world - the remaining ancient cosmogonists had the imagination rather than logic. The distances between the spheres of the shining in Pythagoreans corresponded to the musical intervals in the gamma; When rotating, they sound the "music of spheres", which is not inherent to us. The Pythagoreans considered the land of a spherical and rotating, which is why the day and night changes. Pythagoreans appeared for the first time and the concept of ether. This is the top, clean and transparent layer of air, the place of stay of the gods.
1.2 Geocentric model of the Universe
Another equally well-known scientist of antiquity, Democritis is the founder of ideas about atoms, who lived 400 years before our era, believed that the sun was many times more than the land that the moon herself would not shine, but only reflects sunlightAnd the Milky Way consists of a huge number of stars. To summarize all the knowledge that were accumulated to the IV century. BC E., Could an outstanding philosopher of the ancient world Aristotle (384-322 BC).
Fig. 1. Geocentric system of the world Aristotle Ptolemy.
Its activity covered all the natural sciences - information about the sky and land, about the patterns of body movement, about animals and plants, etc. The main merit of Aristotle as a scientist-encyclopedist was to create a unified system of scientific knowledge. For almost two millennia, his opinion on many issues was not questioned. According to Aristotle, all severe seeks to the center of the Universe, where it accumulates and forms a spherical mass - the land. Planets are placed on special spheres that rotate around the Earth. Such a system of the world got the name of the geocentric (from the Greek name of the Earth - Gay). Aristotle did not accidentally propose to consider the Earth by a fixed center of the world. If the land moved, then, according to the fair opinion of Aristotle, it would be noticeably regular change mutual location stars in the heavenly sphere. But none of the astronomers have observed anything like that. Only in early XIX. in. It was finally discovered and measured the stars (parallax), which is happening due to the movement of the Earth around the Sun. Many generalizations of Aristotle were based on such conclusions, which at that time could not be checked by experience. So, he argued that the movement of the body could not occur if the force does not act on it. As you know from the course of physics, these ideas were refuted only in the XVII century. In times of Galilee and Newton.
1.3 Heliocentric model of the Universe
Among the scientists of antiquity is allocated by the courage of their guessing of Aristarh Samos, who lived in the III century. BC e. He first determined the distance to the moon, calculated the sizes of the Sun, which, according to it, turned out to be 300 more than more than the land in volume. Probably, these data became one of the grounds for the withdrawal that the land along with other planets moves around this largest body. Nowadays, Arystarha Samos began to call "Copernicus of an ancient world." This scientist has made a new in the doctrine of the stars. He believed that they would remove from the ground in an immeasurably further than the sun. For that era, this discovery was very important: from a cozy homemade Mirka, the universe turned into an immense giant world. In this world, land with its mountains and plains, with forests and fields, with seas and oceans became a tiny dust, lost in a grand empty space. Unfortunately, the works of this wonderful scientist before us practically did not reach, and more than one and a half thousand years, humanity was confident that the Earth is a fixed center of the world. To a large extent, a mathematical description of the visible movement of the shone was facilitated, which developed for the Geocentric system of the world, one of the outstanding mathematicians of antiquity - Claudius Ptolemy in II century. AD The most difficult task was to explain the loop-shaped motion of the planets.
Ptolemy in his famous composition "Mathematical Treatise on Astronomy" (it is more known as "Almagest") argued that each planet is evenly moving through the epicyclulus circle, the center of which moves around the land on a deference - a large circle. Thus, he managed to explain the special nature of the movement of the planets, which they differed from the Sun and the Moon. The Ptolemy system gave a purely kinematic description of the movement of the planets - other science of that time could not offer. You have already made sure that the use of the model of heavenly sphere when describing the movement of the sun, the moon and stars allows you to carry out many useful calculations for practical purposes, although there is really no such sphere. The same is true of epicycles and deferers, on the basis of which it is possible to calculate the position of the planets with a certain degree of accuracy.
Fig. 2. The movement of the Earth and Mars.
However, over time, the requirements for the accuracy of these calculations were constantly increased, had to add all new and new epicycles for each planet. All this complicated the Ptolemy system, making it unnecessarily cumbersome and uncomfortable for practical calculations. Nevertheless, the geocentric system remained unshakable about 1000 years. After all, after bloom antique culture In Europe, a long period has arrived, during which not a single substantial discovery in astronomy and many other sciences has been made. Only in the era of the revival begins the rise in the development of sciences, in which astronomy becomes one of the leaders. In 1543, the book of an outstanding Polish scientist Nikolai Copernicus (1473-1543) was published (1473-1543), in which he substantiated a new one - heliocentric - the system of the world. Copernicus showed that the daily movement of all the luminaries can be explained by the rotation of the Earth around the axis, and the loop-shaped movement of the planets - the fact that they all, including the land, turn around the sun.
The figure shows the movement of the Earth and Mars at that time when, as it seems to us, the planet describes in the sky a loop. The creation of a helium-centered system marked a new stage in the development of not only astronomy, but also of all natural science. The idea of \u200b\u200bCopernicus was played a particularly important role that the visible picture of the occurrence of phenomena, which seems true to us, should be sought and found inaccessible to direct observation the essence of these phenomena. The heliocentric system of the world, justified, but not proven by Copernicus, received its confirmation and development in the writings of such outstanding scientists as Galileo Galilee and Johann Kepler.
Galilee (1564-1642), one of the first to send a telescope on the sky, interpreted the discoveries made at the same time as arguments in favor of Copernicus theory. Opening the change of the phases of Venus, he concluded that such their sequence can only be observed in the event of its appeal around the Sun.
Fig. 3. Heliocentric system of the world.
Four satellites of the planet Jupiter found them also denied the ideas that the Earth is the only center in the world around which other bodies can occur around. Galilee not only saw the mountains on the moon, but even measured their height. Along with several other scientists, he also observed stains in the sun and noticed their movement sunny disc. On this basis, he concluded that the sun rotates and, therefore, has such a movement that Copernicus attributed to our planet. So it was concluded that the sun and the moon have a certain similarity with the Earth. Finally, watching in the Milky Way and outside its many weak stars, inaccessible to the naked eye, Galile concludes that the distance to the stars are different and no "sphere of fixed stars" does not exist. All these discoveries have become a new stage in the awareness of the position of the Earth in the Universe.
Chapter 2. Cosmological Models of the Universe
.1 cosmology
Translated from Greek cosmology means "a description of the world order". it scientific discipline, designed to find the most common laws of motion of the matter and build an understanding of the universe as a harmonious one. Ideally, in it (in the cosmological theory) there should be no chance of chance, but all phenomena observed in space should appear as manifestations of general laws of motion of matter. Thus, cosmology is the keys to understanding everything that occurs both in the macrosmos and in the microcosm.
Cosmology - section of astronomy and astrophysics, studying the origin, large-scale structure and evolution of the universe. Data for cosmology is mainly obtained from astronomical observations. For their interpretation, the general theory of A. Einstein's relativity is currently used (1915). The creation of this theory and the conduct of the relevant observations allowed in the early 1920s to put cosmology in a number of accurate sciences, whereas before it was rather a region of philosophy. Two cosmological schools have emerged: empiricals are limited to the interpretation of observational data, not extrapolating their models into unexplored areas; Theorists are trying to explain the observed universe using some hypotheses selected according to the principle of simplicity and elegance. The cosmological model of a large explosion is used to be widely fame, according to which the expansion of the universe began some time ago from a very dense and hot state; The stationary model of the universe, in which it exists forever and has no beginning, no end is discussed.
2.2 Stationary model of the Universe
Start new theory The origin of the Universe was published in 1916 the work of Albert Einstein "Basics of the General Theory of Relativity".
This work is the basis of the relativistic theory of gravity, which, in turn, relies with modern cosmology. The general theory of relativity is applied to all reference systems (and not only moving with a constant speed relative to each other) and looks mathematically much more difficult than special (than the gap of eleven years is due between their publication). It includes both a special case of a special theory of relativity (and, consequently, Newton's laws). At the same time, the general theory of relativity goes much further than all of its predecessors. In particular, it gives a new interpretation of gravity. The general theory of relativity makes the world four-dimensional: time is added to the three spatial dimensions. All four dimensions are inseparable, so it is not about the spatial distance between two objects, as it takes place in the three-dimensional world, but about space-time intervals between events that combine their remoteness from each other - both in time and in space . That is, space and time are considered as a four-dimensional space-time continuum or, simply, space-time. Already in 1917, Einstein himself suggested a model of space, known now as the model of the Einstein Universe, derived from his field equations. In essence, it was a stationary model. In order not to conflict with staticness, Einstein modified his theory by entering the so-called cosmological constant in the equation. He introduced a new "anti-gravity" force, which, unlike other forces, was not generated by any source, but was laid in the structure of space-time itself. Einstein argued that the space - time in itself is always expanding and this expansion is exactly equalized by the attraction of the rest of matter in the universe, so that the universe turns out to be static.
Taking into account the cosmological constant Einstein equation relax:
where ? - cosmological constant, G aB - metric tensor, R aB - Ricci tensor, R - scalar curvature, t aB - Energy-pulse tensor, C is the speed of light, G is a Newton gravitational constant.
"The universe depicted by the theory of Einstein's relativity is similar to a reflaiming soap bubble. She is not his inside, but a film. The surface of the bubble is two-dimensional, and the bubble of the Universe has four dimensions: three spatial and one - temporary, "so wrote the once prominent English physicist James Jeans. This modern scientist (he died in 1946), as it were, revived the old idea of \u200b\u200bPlato's followers and Pythagore that everything around is clean mathematics, and God created this mathematical universe, he himself was a great mathematician.
But Einstein was also a great mathematician. Its formulas allow you to calculate the radius of this universe. Since its curvature depends on the mass of the bodies, which make it up, then it is necessary to know the average density of matter. Astronomers have studied the same small sections of the sky for many years and scrupulously calculated the amount of matter in them. It turned out that the density is approximately 10 -30 g / cm 3. If we substitute this figure in the Einstein formula, then, firstly, it will be a positive curvature, that is, our universe is closed! - A, secondly, its radius is equal to 35 billion light years. This means that although the universe is finite, but it is huge - a ray of light, rushing along a large cosmic circle, will return to the same point after 200 billion of the earthly years!
This is not the only paradox of the Einstein Universe. She is not only finite, but is limitless, she is also inconstant. Albert Einstein formulated its theory in the form of ten very complex, so-called nonlinear differential equations. However, not all scientists reacted to them as ten commandments, allowing only one-sole interpretation. Yes, it is not surprising - after all, the modern mathematics can not solve such equations to solve such equations, but there may be many approximate solutions.
2.3 non-stationary model of the universe
The first fundamentally new revolutionary cosmological consequences of the general theory of relativity revealed the outstanding Soviet mathematician and theoretical physicist Alexander Alexandrovich Friedman (1888-1925).
The main equations of the general theory of relativity are the "world equations" of Einstein, which describe geometric properties, or metric, four-dimensional curved space - time.
Their solution allows, in principle, construct a mathematical model of the universe. Einstein himself took the first one attempt. Considering the radius of the curvature of the space constant (i.e., based on the assumption about the stationarity of the Universe as a whole, which seemed to be the most reasonable), he concluded that the universe should be spatially finite and have the shape of a four-dimensional cylinder. In 1922-1924. Friedman criticized Einstein's conclusions. He showed the unreasonableness of its initial postulate - about stationarity, invariance in time of the universe. After analyzing the world equations, Friedman concluded that their decision for no reason could not be unequivocal and could not give an answer to the question of the form of the universe, its limbs or infinity.
Based on the opposite postulate - about the possible change in the radius of curvature of world space in time, Friedman found non-stationary solutions of the "world equations". As an example of such solutions, he built three possible universe models. In two of them, the radius of the curvature of space is growing monotonically, and the universe is expanding (in one model - from the point, to the other - starting from some finite volume). The third model drew a picture of the pulsating universe with a periodically changing radius of curvature.
The Friedman model relies on the ideas about the isotropic, homogeneous and nonstationary state of the universe:
Ø Isotropy indicates that in the universe there are no dedicated points of directions, that is, its properties do not depend on the direction.
Ø The uniformity of the universe characterizes the distribution of the substance in it. This uniform distribution of the substance can be justified by calculating the number of galaxies to this visible star magnitude. According to observations, the density of the substance in the visible part of the space on average is the same.
Ø Nonstationarity means that the Universe cannot be in a static, unchanged condition, and should either expand or shrink
In modern cosmology, three of these statements are called cosmological postulates. The combination of these postulates is a fundamental cosmological principle. The cosmological principle directly follows from the postulates of the general theory of relativity. A.Fridman, on the basis of the postulates put forward by him, created a model of the structure of the universe, in which all galaxies are removed from each other. This model is similar to a uniformly inflating rubber ball, all points of space of which are removed from each other. The distance between any two points increases, however, none of them is called the expansion center. Moreover, the larger the distance between the points, the faster they are removed from each other. Friedman himself considered only one model of the structure of the universe, in which the space varies in parabolic law. That is, at first it will slowly expand, and then, under the influence of gravity forces, the expansion is changed to the compression to the original size. His followers have shown that there are at least three models for which all three cosmological postulates are performed. Parabolic model A.Fridman is one of the possible options. A somewhat different solution of the task found the Dutch astronomer V. de Sitter. The space of the universe in its model is hyperbolic, that is, the expansion of the universe occurs with increasing acceleration. The expansion rate is so large that the gravitational impact cannot prevent this process. He actually predicted the expansion of the universe. The third behavior of the universe calculated the Belgian priest J. Lemeter. In his model, the Universe will expand to infinity, but the rate of expansion will constantly decline - this dependence is logarithmic. In this case, the expansion speed is only sufficient to avoid compression to zero. In the first model, the space is twisted and is closed by itself. This is a sphere, so its sizes are finite. In the second model, the space is curved otherwise, in the form of a hyperbolic paraboloid (or saddles), the space is infinite. In the third model with a critical rate of expansion, the space is flat, and, therefore, also infinite.
Initially, these hypotheses were perceived as a casus, including A. Einstein. However, already in 1926, an epochal event occurred in cosmology, which confirmed the correctness of the calculations of Friedman - de Sitter - Lemeter. Such an event that had an impact on the construction of all existing models of the Universe was the work of the American Astronoma Edwin P. Habbla. In 1929, when conducting observations on the largest telescope, he found that the light going to the ground from the distant galaxies, shifts towards the long-wave part of the spectrum. This phenomenon that received the name "Red Displacement Effect" is based on the principle opened by the famous physicist K. Doppler. The Doppler effect suggests that in the spectrum of the radiation source approaching the observer, the spectrum line is shifted into a shortwave (purple) side, in the source spectrum removed from the observer, the spectral lines are shifted into the red (long-wave) side.
The effect of the red displacement indicates the removal of galaxies from the observer. With the exception of the famous Andromeda nebula and several stars systems nearest to us, all other galaxies are removed about us. Moreover, it turned out that the velocity of the galaxies is not the same in different parts of the universe. They are removed from us the faster than the next. In other words, the magnitude of the red displacement turned out to be a proportional distance to the radiation source - such is the strict wording of the open law of Hubble. The regular communication of the removal rate of galaxies is described with the distance using a permanent Hubble (H, km / s per 1 megaparsec distance).
V \u003d hr. ,
where V is the removal rate of galaxies, H is constant Hubble, R is the distance between them.
The value of this constant is still not fulfilled. Various scientists determine it in the range of 80 ± 17 km / s for each megaparsec distance. The phenomenon of the red bias received an explanation in the phenomenon of "Galaktik". In this regard, the problems of studying the expansion of the universe and determine its age on the duration of this expansion are put forward to the fore.
Most modern cosmologists understand this expansion, as an expansion of the truly impending and existing universe ... Unfortunately, early death did not allow the genius theorist of the Universe A. A. Friedman, whose ideas for more than half a century send the idea of \u200b\u200bcosmologists, to participate in the future revolutionary development of the process Updates of the cosmological picture of the world. The experience of the history of knowledge of the world prompts, however, as the modern relativistic cosmological picture of the world, being the result of extrapolation on the whole conceivable "whole" knowledge of the limited part of the Universe, inevitably inequate. Therefore, it is possible to think that it rather reflects the properties of a limited part of the universe (which can be called the metagalaxy), and perhaps only one of the stages of its development (which allows relativistic cosmology and what can be cleared with the clarification of the average density of matter in the methagoactic). Currently, however, in this paragraph, the picture of the world remains uncertain.
Chapter 3. Modern studies of cosmological models of the Universe
.1 Nobel Prize for the opening of the accelerated expansion of the Universe
Modern cosmology is a complex, comprehensive and fast-growing system of naturally scientific (astronomy, physics, chemistry, etc.) and philosophical knowledge of the Universe as a whole, based on both observational data and on theoretical conclusions related to the astronomical observations of the part of the Universe .
More recently, in the field of modern cosmology, the discovery was made, which in the future will be able to change our ideas about the origin and evolution of our universe. Scientists who made a huge contribution to the development of this discovery were awarded for their works by the Nobel Prize.
The Nobel Prize was awarded to American Salu Pllmutter, Australian Brian Schmidt and American Adam Raw for the opening of the accelerated expansion of the Universe.
In 1998, scientists discovered that the Universe expands with acceleration. The discovery was made due to the study of supernova type IA. Supernovae is stars that from time to time spoil the sky from time to time and then quickly quickly dull. Due to its unique properties, these stars are used as markers to determine how cosmological distances are changed over time. The outbreak of supernova is a moment in the life of a massive star when it is experiencing a catastrophic explosion. Supernovae is different types depending on the specific circumstances preceding the cataclysm. When observed, the outbreak type is determined by the spectrum and shape of the gloss curve. Supernovae, which received the designation Ia, occurs with the thermalide explosion of white dwarf, the mass of which exceeded the threshold value of ~ 1.4 of the mass of the Sun, called the chandranekar limit. While the weight of the white dwarf is less than the threshold value, the strength of the stars gravity is equalized by the pressure of the degenerate electronic gas. But if a substance flows into it in a close double system from a neighboring star, then at a certain point, electronic pressure turns out to be insufficient and the star explodes, and astronomers register another outbreak of supernova type IA. Since the threshold mass and the reason why white dwarf explodes, always the same, such supernovae at the gloss maximum must have the same, and very greater luminosity and can serve as a "standard candle" to determine intergalactic distances. If you collect data on many so supernova and compare distances to them with red galaxies, in which flashes happened, then it is possible to determine how the pace of expansion of the universe has changed in the past, and choose the corresponding cosmological model.
Studying remote from the Earth supernovae, scientists found that they are at least a quarter dim, which predicts the theory - this means that the stars are too far. By calculating, thus, the parameters of the extension of the universe, scientists found that this process occurs with acceleration.
3.2 Dark matter
Dark matter is akin to the usual substance in the sense that it is capable of galaxy (size, let's say, with the galaxy or accumulation of galaxies) and participates in gravitational interactions as well as a conventional substance. Most likely, it consists of new, non-open particles still on earthly conditions.
In addition to cosmological data, in favor of the existence of dark matter, it is measured by the gravitational field in the accumulations of galaxies and in galaxies. There are several ways to measure the gravitational field in the accumulations of galaxies, one of which is gravitational lenzing illustrated in Fig. four.
Fig. 4. Gravitational lenzing.
The gravitational field of cluster twists the rays of light, emitted by the galaxy, which is behind the accumulation, i.e. the gravitational field acts as a lens. At the same time, several images of this remote galaxy appear; On the left half of Fig. 7 They have a blue color. The curvature of light depends on the mass distribution in the cluster, regardless of which particles create this mass. The mass distribution reduced in this way is shown on the right half of Fig. 7 blue; It can be seen that it is very different from the distribution of the luminous substance. The massacres measured in a similar way, galaxies are consistent with the fact that dark matter invests about 25% in full energy density in the universe. Recall that the same number is obtained from the comparison of the theory of the formation of structures (galaxies, clusters) with observations.
Dark matter is available in galaxies. This again follows from the measurements of the gravitational field, now in galaxies and their surroundings. The stronger the gravitational field, the faster it rotates around the galaxy of the star and the gas clouds, so that measurements of rotation rates depending on the distance to the center of the galaxy allow you to restore the mass distribution in it.
What are particles of dark matter? It is clear that these particles should not disintegrate onto other, lighter particles, otherwise they would be broken during the existence of the universe. This fact itself suggests that in nature there is a new, not open while the law of preservation, prohibiting these particles to break up. Analogy here with the law of conservation of an electric charge: an electron is the lightest particle with an electric charge, and that is why it does not fall into smaller particles (for example, neutrino and photons). Next, particles of dark matter are extremely poorly interacting with our substance, otherwise they would have been discovered in earth experiments. The region begins the region of hypotheses. The most believable (but far from the only!) The hypothesis is represented that particles of dark matter 100-1000 times heavier than the proton, and that their interaction with the conventional intensity substance is comparable to the neutrino interaction. It is within the framework of this hypothesis that the modern density of dark matter finds a simple explanation: particles of dark matter were intensively born and annihilated in a very early universe at ultra-high temperatures (about 1015 degrees), and some of them lived to this day. With these parameters of these particles, their modern amount in the universe is obtained just what is needed.
Is it possible to expect the discovery of dark matter particles in the near future on earthly conditions? Because today we do not know the nature of these particles, it is quite unambiguous to answer this question. Nevertheless, the prospect is very optimistic.
There are several ways to search for particles of dark matter. One of them is associated with experiments on future high-energy accelerators - collides. If the dark matter particles are really heavier than the proton 100-1000 times, they will be born in collisions of conventional particles, overclocked on collides to high energies (energies achieved on existing collides, is not enough for this). The closest perspectives are related to those under construction at the International Center of the CERN under the wife's largest adronle collider (LHC), which will receive counter protons with the energy of 7x7 teraelectronvolt. It must be said that according to the most popular hypothesis, the particles of dark matter are just one representative of a new family of elementary particles, so along with the opening of dark matter particles, you can hope for the detection of a whole class of new particles and new interactions on accelerators. Cosmology suggests that the world of elementary particles known today is not exhausted by the world's "bricks"!
Another way consists of registration of particles of dark matter that fly around us. They are by no means not enough: when mass equal to 1000 mass proton, these particles here and now there must be 1000 pieces in a cubic meter. The problem is that they are extremely weakly interact with conventional particles, the substance is transparent to them. However, particles of dark matter occasionally face atomic nuclei, and these collisions can be hoped to register. The search in this direction is carried out with a number of highly sensitive detectors placed deep underground, where the background from cosmic rays is sharply reduced.
Finally, another way is associated with the registration of products annihilation of particles of dark matter among themselves. These particles should accumulate in the center of the Earth and in the center of the Sun (the substance is practically transparent to them, and they are able to fall inside the Earth or the Sun). There they are annihilated with each other, and at the same time other particles are formed, including neutrino. These neutrinos are freely pass through the thickness of the Earth or the Sun, and can be registered with special installations - neutrine telescopes. One of these neutrino telescopes is located in the depths of Lake Baikal, the other (Amanda) - deep in ice on the southern pole. There are other approaches to the search for particles of dark matter, for example, the search for products of their annihilation in the central region of our galaxy. Which of all these paths will first lead to success, time will show, but in any case, the opening of these new particles and the study of their properties will become the most important scientific achievement. These particles will tell us about the properties of the Universe after 10-9 s (one billion seconds!) After a large explosion, when the temperature of the universe was 1015 degrees, and particles of dark matter were intensively interacted with cosmic plasma.
3.3 Dark Energy
Dark energy is a much strange substance than dark matter. Start with the fact that it is not going to the clocks, but evenly "spilled" in the universe. In galaxies and clusters, the galaxies are as much as out of them. The most unusual thing is that dark energy in a certain sense is experiencing anti-gravity. We have already said that modern astronomical methods can not only measure the current pace of expanding the universe, but also determine how it changed over time. So, astronomical observations indicate that today (and in the near past) the universe expands with acceleration: the rate of expansion is growing over time. In this sense, you can talk about anti-gravity: the usual gravitational attraction would slow down the galaxies' running, and in our universe, it turns out, the opposite is.
heliocentric Universe Cosmological Gravity
Fig. 5. Illustration of dark energy.
Such a picture, generally speaking, does not contradict the general theory of relativity, but for this dark energy should have a special property - negative pressure. This sharply distinguishes it from conventional forms of matter. It will not be an exaggeration to say that the nature of the dark energy is the main mystery of the fundamental physics of the XXI century.
One of the candidates for the role of dark energy is a vacuum. Vacuum energy density does not change when the universe expansion, and this means the negative pressure of the vacuum. Another candidate is a new excess field, permeating the whole universe; For him, the term "quintessence" is used. There are other candidates, but in any case dark energy represents something completely unusual.
Another way to explain the accelerated expansion of the Universe is to assume that the laws of gravity themselves are modified at cosmological distances and cosmological times. Such a hypothesis is far from harmless: attempts to summarize the general theory of relativity in this direction are faced with serious difficulties. Apparently, if such a generalization is generally possible, it will be associated with the idea of \u200b\u200bthe existence of additional dimensions of the space, in addition to the three dimensions that we perceive in everyday experience.
Unfortunately, it is now not visible ways of direct experimental study of the dark energy on earthly conditions. This, of course, does not mean that in the future there can be no new brilliant ideas in this direction, but today the hopes for the clarification of the Nature of the Dark Energy (or, more widely, the reasons for the accelerated expansion of the universe) are connected exclusively with astronomical observations and to receive new, more accurate cosmological data. We have to learn in detail, as it was expanding the universe at a relatively late stage of its evolution, and this should hope to make a choice between different hypotheses.
Conclusion
In this course work, the cosmological models of the Universe were considered. After analyzing the literature on the course of general physics and astronomy, I traced the history of cosmological studies, considered modern cosmological models of the universe and picked up illustrative material to the research topic. By proving the relevance of the chosen topic, summed up according to the work done.
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The concepts of "Universe" and "Metagalaxy" are very close concepts: they characterize the same object, but in different aspects. The concept of "universe" means the entire existing material world; The concept of "metagalaxy" is the same world, but from the point of view of its structure - as an ordered system of galaxies.
In classical science there was a so-called theory of the stationary state of the universe, according to which the Universe was always almost the same as now. Astronomy was static: the movements of the planets and comet were studied, stars were described, their classifications were created that was, of course, very important. But the question of the evolution of the universe was not put.
In this control work The main cosmological models of the Universe will be considered.
1.1 Modern cosmological models of the Universe: Model Enstein A., Model A.A. Friedman
Modern cosmological models of the universe are based on the overall theory of relativity A. Einstein, according to which the metric of space and time is determined by the distribution of gravitational masses in the universe. Its properties are as well due to the average density of matter and other specific physical factors.
Einstein's equation is not one, but many decisions than the presence of many cosmological models of the Universe. The first model was developed by A. Einstein himself in 1917. He threw the postulates of Newtonian cosmology about the absoluteness and infinity of space and time. In accordance with the cosmological model of the Universe A. Einstein, world space is homogeneously and isotropically, the matter is on average distributed in it evenly, the gravitational attraction of the masses is compensated by universal cosmological repulsion.
The existence time of the Universe is infinite, i.e. it has no beginning, no end, and the space is infinite, but of course.
The universe in the cosmological model A. Einstein is stationary, infinite in time and limitless in space.
In 1922, the Russian mathematician and Geophysicist A. A Friedman threw the postulate of classical cosmology on the stationarity of the Universe and received the solution of Einstein's equation, describing the universe with the "expanding" space.
The ratio of the average density of the universe critical is indicated
There are three cosmological models depending on the name of their creator called Friedmann. In these models, the vacuum energy (cosmological constant) is not taken into account.
I Friedman model ,. The extension of the universe will be eternal, and the speed of galaxies will never strive for zero. The space in such a model is infinite, has a negative curvature, describes Lobachevsky geometry. Through each point of such a space, an infinite set of direct, parallel given, the sum of the triangle angles is less than 180 °, the ratio of the circumference length to the radius is greater than 2π.
II Friedman model ,. The expansion of the universe will be eternal, but in infinity his speed will strive for zero. The space in such a model is infinite, flat, described by the geometry of Euclidea.
III Friedman model ,. The expansion of the universe will be changed by compression, the collapse and will end that the universe will join the singular point (a large crunch). The space in such a model is finite, has a positive curvature, in form represents a three-dimensional hyperspher, describes the spherical geometry of Riemann. In such a space, there are no parallel straight lines, the sum of the triangle angles is greater than 180 °, the ratio of the circumference of the circumference to the radius is less than 2π. The total total mass of such universe is zero.
According to modern data 
.
1.2 Alternative cosmological models of the Universe
In addition to the standard high explosion model, in principle there are alternative cosmological models:
1. The model, symmetric relative to matter and antimatter, involves an equal presence of these two species in the universe. Although it is obvious that our galaxy practically does not contain antimatter, the neighboring star systems could completely consist of it; At the same time, their radiation would be exactly the same as normal galaxies. However, in earlier extension epochs, when the substance and antimatter were in a closer contact, their annihilation should have given birth to powerful gamma radiation. Observations do not discover it, which makes a symmetrical model unlikely.
2. In the cold large explosion model, it is assumed that the expansion began at the absolute zero temperature. True, in this case, nuclear synthesis should occur and warmat the substance, but the microwave background radiation cannot be directly associated with a large explosion, and it is necessary to explain somehow differently. This theory is attractive in that the substance in it is subject to fragmentation, and this is necessary to explain the large-scale heterogeneity of the universe.
3. The stationary cosmological model involves the continuous birth of a substance. The main position of this theory, known as the ideal cosmological principle, argues that the Universe has always been and remains like now. Observations refute it.
4. Considered the modified variants of Einstein theory of gravity. For example, the theory of K. Brans and R.Dikka from Princeton generally agrees with observations within the solar system. The Branz - Dickka model, as well as a more radical model F.Khuli, in which some fundamental constants vary over time, have almost the same cosmological parameters in our era, as well as the large explosion model.
5. In 1927, Belgian Abbot and scientist J. Lemeter knocked out the "expansion" of space with astronomical observation data. The lemet introduced the concept of the beginning of the universe as a singularity (i.e. the super-state state) and the birth of the universe as a large explosion. Based on the modified Einstein theory of railway, in 1925, a cosmological model built a large explosion with a long phase of a quiet state during which the galaxies could have been formed. Einstein became interested in this opportunity to justify his favorite cosmological model of the static universe, but when the universe was opened, he publicly refused her.
ΛCDM (Lambda-Cidiyam is read) - a reduction from Lambda-Cold Dark Matter, a modern standard cosmological model in which the spatially flat universe is filled, in addition to the usual baryon matter, dark energy (described by the cosmological constant λ of Einstein's creened matter) and cold dark matter (English Cold Dark Matter). According to this model, the age of the universe is equal 
billions of years.
Since the average density of the substance in the Universe is unknown, today we do not know in which of these spaces of the Universe we live.
In 1929, American astronomer E. P. Habble discovered the existence of a strange dependence between the distance and speed of the Galaxik: all the galaxies move from us, and at the rate that increases in proportion to the distance, the Galaxian system expands.
The expansion of the universe is considered a scientifically established fact. According to the theoretical calculations of J. Lemeter, the radius of the universe in the original state was 10-12 cm, which is close to the size to the radius of the electron, and its density was 1096 g / cm3. In a singular state, the universe was a micro-object of negligible sizes. From the initial singular state, the universe moved to expansion as a result of a large explosion.
Retrospective calculations determine the age of the universe at 13-20 billion years. G. A. Gamov suggested that the temperature of the substance was large and fell with the expansion of the universe. His calculations have shown that the Universe in its evolution undergoes certain stages, during which education occurs chemical elements and structures. In modern cosmology, for clarity, the initial stage of the evolution of the Universe is divided into "era"
When assessing the gradation of the scale of the Universe, a classic philosophical question always arises: finite or infinites the universe? The concept of infinity operates mainly mathematics and philosophers. Experimental physicists who have experimental methods and measurement techniques, always finite values \u200b\u200bof measured values \u200b\u200bare always obtained. The great importance of science and especially modern physics is that it has now been obtained by many quantitative characteristics of objects not only macro and micromyr, but also megamira.
The spatial scale of our universe and the size of the main material formations, including micro-lectures, can be submitted from the following table, where the dimensions are given in meters (only the orders of numbers are given for simplicity, i.e. approximate numbers within one order):
Radius of the cosmological horizon
or visible universe 10 26
The diameter of our galaxy 10 21
Distance from Earth to Sun 10 11
Diameter of the Sun 10 9
Person size 10 0
Visible light wavelength 10 -6 - 10 -8
Virus size 10 -6 -10 -8
Diameter of hydrogen atom 10 -10
The diameter of the atomic core 10 -15
Minimum distance
available today to our measurements 10 -18
From this data it is clear that the ratio of the largest size to the smallest size, accessible by today's experiment, is 44 orders. With the development of science, this attitude has increased and will increase as the accumulation of new knowledge of the world around us. After all, "our world is only a school where we learn to know," said French philosopher Michel Monten (1533-1592).
The universe is at a very different levels, from conditionally elementary particles and to gigantic ultraliques of galaxies, inherent in structurality. The modern structure of the Universe is the result of cosmic evolution, during which galaxies were formed from protest roblactics, from the protosts - stars, from the protoplanetic cloud - planets.
1.3 hot blast model
According to the Cosmological model of Friedman - Lemeter, the universe appeared at the time of the Big Bang - about 20 billion years ago, and its expansion continues until now, gradually slowing down. In the first moment of the explosion of the Matter of the Universe had endless density and temperature; This condition is called singularity. According to the general theory of relativity, gravity is not a real force, but there is a curvature of space-time: the more the density of matter, the stronger curvature. At the time of initial singularity, the curvature was also infinite. You can express an endless curvature of space-time in other words, saying that in the initial moment of matter and space at the same time exploded everywhere in the universe. As the space of the expanding universe, the density of matter falls in it.
S. Khoking and R. Penrose proved that in the past it was certainly a singular state if the overall theory of relativity is applicable to describe the physical processes in a very early universe. To avoid catastrophic singularity in the past, it is necessary to significantly change physics, for example, assuming the possibility of spontaneous continuous birth of matter, as in the theory of the stationary universe. But astronomical observations do not give any reason for this. The earlier events we consider, the less their spatial scale was; As it approaches the beginning of the expansion, the horizon of the observer is compressed (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Illustration of a big explosion models
In the very first moments, the scale is so small that we are no longer able to apply the general theory of relativity: to describe phenomena in such a small scale requires quantum mechanics. But the quantum theory of gravity does not yet exist, so no one knows how events developed to the moment 10-43 s, called the planacian time (in honor of the Father quantum theory). At that moment, the density of matter reached an incredible value of 1090 kg / cm 3, which cannot be compared not only with the density of the bodies around us (less than 10 g / cm 3), but even with the density of the atomic nucleus (about 1012 kg / cm 3) - the greatest density available in the laboratory. Therefore, for modern physics, the beginning of the extension of the Universe is the plank time.
The large explosion models are represented by three most important types: the standard open model, standard closed and model of the lemet. The horizontal time was postponed, vertically - the distance between any two sufficiently removed from each other (to exclude their interaction) by galaxies. The circle marked our era. If the Universe had always expanded at the current speed expressed by the permanent Hubble N, then it would begin about 20 billion years ago and occurred as shown by a diagonal dotted line. If the expansion slows down, as in an open model of a unlimited world or in a closed model of a limited world, then the age of the universe is less than 1 / n. The smallest age at the closed model, the extension of which is quickly slowed down and is replaced by compression. The Lemetra model describes the universe, the age of which is significantly larger than 1 / N, because in its history there is a long period when the extensions almost did not occur. The lemet model and an open model describe the universe that will always expand.
Under such conditions, the birth of the Universe was unthinkable and the density took place. Moreover, it could be a birth in the literal sense: some cosmologists (let's say, Ya.B. Zeldovich in the USSR and L.Parker in the USA) believed that the particles and gamma photons were born in that era of the gravitational field. From the point of view of physics, this process could take place if the singularity was anisotropic, i.e. The gravitational field was inhomogeneous. In this case, the tidal gravitational forces could "pull out" the real particles from vacuum, creating, thus, the substance of the universe. Studying the processes that took place immediately after the Big Bang, we understand that our physical theories are still very imperfect. The thermal evolution of the early universe depends on the birth of massive elementary particles - hadrons, which nuclear physics knows still little. Many of these particles are unstable and short-lived.
After the first millisecond of the expansion of the Universe, strong (nuclear) interaction ceased to play a decisive role in it: the temperature declined so much that the atomic nuclei ceased to collapse. Further physical processes were determined by weak interaction responsible for the birth of light particles - leptons (i.e. electrons, positrons, mesons and neutrinos) under the action of thermal radiation. When, during the expansion, the radiation temperature dropped to about 10 10 k, the lepton pairs stopped born, almost all positrons and electrons annihilated; Only neutrinos and antineutrino remained, photons and a bit preserved with the previous era of protons and neutrons. So the lepton era ended. The next phase of expansion is a photon era - characterized by the absolute predominance of thermal radiation. On each preserved proton or electron accounts for a billion photons. At first, it was gamma quanta, but as the universe expands, they lost energy and became x-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared and, finally, were now radio-ducts that we accept as black-meal background (relict) radio emission.
1.4 Unresolved Cosmology Problems of Big Bang
You can mark 4 problems now before the cosmological model of the Big Bang.
1. The problem of singularity: many doubt the applicability of the general theory of relativity, which gives singularity in the past. Alternative cosmological theories free from singularity are proposed.
2. Closely related to the singularity problem of the isotropy of the universe. It seems strange that the expansion that started from the singular state turned out to be so isotropic. It is not excluded that the anisotropic initial expansion gradually became isotropic under the action of dissipative forces.
3. Uniform on the largest scale, on a smaller scale, the universe is very inhomogeneous (galaxies, accumulation of galaxies). It is difficult to understand how one gravity could lead to the emergence of such a structure. Therefore, cosmologists explore the possibilities of inhomogeneous models of a large explosion.
4. Finally, you can ask what is the future of the universe? For a response, you need to know the average density of matter in the universe. If it exceeds some critical value, then the geometry of space-time is closed, and in the future the universe will certainly be squeezed. The closed universe does not have borders, but its volume is finite. If the density is below the critical, the universe is open and will expand forever. The open universe is infinite and has only one singularity at the beginning. While the observations are best consistent with the open universe model. The origin of a large-scale structure. Cosmologists have two opposite points of view on this problem. The most radical is that at first there was chaos. The expansion of the early universe occurred extremely anisotropically and ineumonously, but then dissipative processes smoothed anisotropy and brought the expansion to the Friedman model - Lemeter. The fate of inhomogeneities is very curious: if their amplitude was big, they were inevitably needed to collapse into black holes with a mass defined by the current horizon. Their formation could begin directly from the plank time, so in the universe could have been many small black holes with the masses of up to 10-5 g. However, S. Choking showed that "mini-holes" should, radiating, lose their mass, and to our The epochs could continue only black holes with masses of more than 10 16 g, which corresponds to the mass of a small mountain.
Primary chaos could contain perturbations of any scale and amplitude; The largest of them in the form of sound waves could be preserved from the era of the early universe to the era of radiation, when the substance was still hot enough to emit, absorb and dispel radiation. But with the end of this era, the cooled plasma recombined and ceased to interact with radiation. The pressure and speed of sound in the gas fell, as a result of which the sound waves turned into shock waves, compressing gas and force it to collapse in the galaxies and their clusters. Depending on the type of source waves, calculations predict a very different picture, far from always appropriate. To select between possible options for cosmological models, one philosophical idea, known as the Anthropic principle, is important: from the very beginning, the universe was supposed to have such properties that allowed for the galaxies, stars, planets and reasonable life on them. Otherwise, there was no one to engage in cosmology. An alternative point of view is that the initial structure of the Universe can be found no more that they give observations. According to this conservative approach, the young Universe chaotic cannot be considered, since it is now very isotropic and homogeneous. The deviations from homogeneity, which we observe in the form of galaxies, could grow under the action of gravity from small initial density heterogeneities. However, the studies of the large-scale distribution of galaxies (mostly carried out by J. Plis in Princeton), it seems, do not confirm this idea. Another interesting opportunity is that the accumulations of black holes born in the adronle era could become the initial fluctuations for the formation of galaxies. Open or closed universe? The nearest galaxies are removed from us at a speed proportional to the distance; But more distant does not obey this dependence: their movement indicates that the expansion of the universe slows down with time. In a closed model of the Universe under the action of gravity, the expansion at a certain point stops and is replaced by compression (Fig. 2), but observations show that the deceleration of galaxies is still not so fast so that the complete stop has ever occurred.
Horizontal lines mark the characteristic moments of evolution, and the triangles shown by them show the area of \u200b\u200bthe universe available to the observer at this point. The longer the time passed from the start of expansion, the more the area becomes available for observation. Currently, the light comes to us from stars, quasars and clusters of galaxies remote by billions of light years, but in the early epochs, the observer could see a much lower area of \u200b\u200bthe universe. In various epochs, different forms of matter were dominated: although the substance of atomic nuclei (nucleons) dominates, before the universe was hot, the radiation (photons) dominated, and even earlier - light elementary particles (leptons) and heavy (hadron).
Figure 2 - Standard model of a large explosion: the time is postponed vertically, and the distance is horizontally.
In order for the universe to be closed, the average density of matter in it should exceed a certain critical value. Evaluation of the density of the visible and invisible substance is very close to this value. The distribution of galaxies in space is very inhomogeneously. Our local group of galaxies, including the Milky Way, Andromeda Nebula and a few smaller galaxies, lies on the periphery of a huge system of galaxies, known as the supercount in Virgo (Virgo), the center of which coincides with the cluster of Virgo galaxies. If the average density of the world is large and the universe is closed, it should have been observed a strong deviation from an isotropic expansion caused by attraction of our and neighboring galaxies to the super-consumption center. In the open universe, this deviation is insignificant. Observations are more consistent with the open model. The great interest of cosmologists causes the content in the satellite of the heavy isotope of hydrogen - deuterium, which was formed during nuclear reactions in the first moments after a large explosion. The deuterium content turned out to be extremely sensitive to the density of the substance in the epoch, and therefore in our. However, the "deuterium test" is not easy, for it is necessary to investigate the primary substance that has not visited the depths of stars from the moment of cosmological synthesis, where deuterium is easily burning. The study of extremely distant galaxies showed that the deuterium content corresponds to the low density of matter and, therefore, the open model of the universe.
Conclusion
Cosmological models lead to the conclusion that the fate of the expanding universe depends only on the average density of its filling substance and on the value of a constant Hubble. If the average density is equal to or below some critical density, the expansion of the universe will continue forever. If the density is higher critical, the expansion will stop early or later and will be reduced by compression.
In this case, the Universe is narrowed to the sizes that they have been presumably in case of occurring, giving way to the phenomenon called a large compression.
We list the main models of the Universe: model de Sitter: the model of the expanding universe, proposed in 1917, in which there is no substance or radiation. This unrealistic hypothesis had, nevertheless, is historically important, since it first advanced the idea of \u200b\u200bexpanding, and not static universe; Lemeter model: model of the universe, which begins with a large explosion, replacing the static phase and subsequent infinite expansion. The model is named by name J. Lemeter (1894-1966),
The model of the expanding universe without the use of the general theory of relativity proposed in 1948 by Edward Milne (Edward Milne). This expanding, isotropic and homogeneous universe. Not containing substance. It has a negative curvature and unluckled.
Fredman model: model of the Universe, which can collapse inside itself. In 1922, the Soviet mathematician A. A. Friedman (Alexander Friedmann, 1888-1925), analyzing the equation of the general theory of relativity
Friedman's universe can be closed if the density of the substance in it is large enough to stop the extension. This fact led to the search for the so-called missing mass. In the future, Friedman's conclusions were confirmed in astronomical observations, the so-called red shift of spectral lines in the spectra of galaxies, which corresponds to the mutual removal of these stellar systems.
The Einstein de Sitter model: the most simple of modern cosmological models in which the universe has zero pressure, zero curvature (i.e., a flat geometry) and an infinite length, and its expansion is not limited in space and in time. The model proposed in 1932, this model is a special case (at zero curvature) of a more general Friedman Universe.
2. What is the essence of the processes of self-organization in alive and inanimate nature?
All objects of living and inanimate nature can be represented as certain systems that have specific features and properties characterizing their level of organization. Taking into account the level of the organization, it is possible to consider the hierarchy of the structures of the organization of material objects of alive and inanimate nature. Such a hierarchy of structures begins with elementary particles, which are the initial level of the organization of matter, and ends with living organizations and communities - the highest levels of the organization.
Currently, in the field of fundamental theoretical physics, concepts are developed, according to which an objectively existing world is not exhausted by the material world, perceived by our senses or physical appliances. The authors of these concepts came to the following conclusion: along with the material world there is a pre-order reality, which has a fundamentally different nature compared to the reality of the material world.
The study of matter and its structural levels is a prerequisite for the formation of the worldview, regardless of whether it will ultimately be materialistic or idealistic.
It is quite obvious that the role of determining the concept of matter, understanding the latter as inexhaustible to build scientific picture Peace, solving the problem of reality and the cognizability of objects and phenomena of micro, macro and mega worlds.
Under the organization of the system, we will understand the change in the structure of the system, which ensures coordinated behavior, or the functioning of the system, which is determined by external conditions.
If under the change in the organization, understand the change in the method of compounding (or communication) subsystems forming the system, the phenomenon of self-organization can be defined as such an inevitable change in the system and its functions, which occurs outside of any additional effects, due to the interaction of the system with the conditions of existence and is approaching some relatively sustainable state.
Under self-organization, we will understand the change in the structure, ensuring the coherence of behavior due to the presence of internal relations and connections with external environment.
Self-organization is a natural science expression of the process of self-apparent matter. The ability to self-organization has a living and inanimate nature system, as well as artificial systems. The specific configuration of the structure exists only in strictly defined conditions and at certain times of the "movement" of the complex system. The dynamics of the development of systems leads to a consistent change in their structures.
A natural change in the structure of the system, respectively, historical changes in the ratio with the external environment and is called evolution.
The change in the structure of a complex system in the process of its interaction with the environment is a manifestation of the properties of openness as an increase in the possibility of accessing new. On the other hand, the change in the structure of a complex system ensures the expansion of life conditions associated with the complication of the organization and the increase in vital activity, i.e. Acquisition of more general values \u200b\u200bto establish links with new parties to the external environment.
Self-organization is characterized by the occurrence of internally coordinated functioning due to internal connections and connections with the external environment. Moreover, the concept function and structure of the system are closely interrelated; The system is organized, i.e. Changes the structure for the execution of the function.
The structurality and systemic organization of matter are among its most important attributes, express the streamlord of the existence of matter and those concrete forms in which it manifests itself.
Under the structure of matter usually understand its structure in macromir, i.e. existence in the form of molecules, atoms, elementary particles, etc. This is due to the fact that a man is a macroscopic creature and a macroscopic scale is familiar to it, so the concept of structure is usually associated with various micro-objects.
But if we consider the matter as a whole, the concept of the structure of matter will also cover macroscopic bodies, all the cosmic megamir systems, and in any arbitrarily large spatial-time scale. From this point of view, the concept of "structure" is manifested in the fact that it exists in the form of an infinite variety of holistic systems, closely interrelated among themselves, as well as in ordering the structure of each system. Such a structure is infinite in quantitative and qualitative relationships.
The manifestations of structural infinity of matter are:
- the inexhaustibility of the objects and processes of the microworld;
- infinity of space and time;
- Infinity of changes and development of processes.
Of the variety of forms of objective reality, the empirically available always remains only the ultimate region of the material world, which now extends across 10 -15 to 10 28 cm, and in time - up to 2 × 10 9 years.
The structurality and systemic organization of matter are among the most important attributes. They express the streamlord of the existence of matter and its specific forms in which it manifests itself.
The material world is one: we mean that all of its parts - from inanimate items to living beings, from heavenly Tel Before a person as a member of society - one way or another are connected.
The system is that in a certain way related to each other and subordinated to the relevant laws.
Systems are objectively existing and theoretical, or conceptual, i.e. Existing only in human consciousness.
The system is an internal or external ordered set of interrelated and interacting elements.
The ordering of the set implies the presence of natural relations between the elements of the system, which is manifested in the form of the laws of a structural organization. Internal orderliness is available in all natural systems arising from the interaction of bodies and natural self-development of matter. The outer is characteristic of man-made artificial systems: technical, industrial, conceptual, etc.
Structural levels of matter are formed from a certain set of objects of any class and are characterized by a special type of interaction between the components of them with elements.
The criterion for the allocation of various structural levels is the following signs:
- Spatio-temporary scales;
- a set of crucial properties;
- specific laws of movement;
- the degree of relative complexity arising in the process of historical development of matter in the art;
- Some other signs.
Currently known structural levels of matter can be allocated according to the above features in the following areas.
1. Microwr. These include:
- particles elementary and nuclei of atoms - the region of about 10 - 15 cm;
- Atoms and molecules 10 -8 -10 -7 cm.
The micrometer is molecules, atoms, elementary particles - the world of extremely small, directly observed micro-lectures, the spatial difference of which is calculated from 10 -8 to 10 -16 cm, and the lifetime is from infinity to 10 -24 p.
2. Macromir: macroscopic bodies 10 -6 -10 7 cm.
Macromir - the world of stable forms and commensurate human values, as well as crystalline complexes of molecules, organisms, communities of organisms; The world of macro objects, the dimension of which is correlated with the scale of human experience: spatial values \u200b\u200bare expressed in millimeters, centimeters and kilometers, and time - in seconds, minutes, hours, for years.
Megamir is planets, star complexes, galaxies, metagalaxy - the world of huge cosmic scales and speeds, the distance in which is measured by light years, and the time of the existence of space objects - millions and billion years.
And although these levels operate their specific patterns, micro, macro - and megamirs are intersectively interrelated.
3. Megamir: Space systems and unlimited scales up to 1028 cm.
Different levels of matter are characterized different types connections.
In a space scale - gravitational forces.
With an increase in the size of objects, the interaction energy decreases. If we take the energy of the gravitational interaction per unit, then the electromagnetic interaction in the atom will be 1039 more, and the interaction between nucleons - components of the kernel particles is 1041 times more. The smaller the size of the material systems, the more firmly related to their elements.
The division of matter on structural levels is relative. In an affordable space-time scale, the structure of matter is manifested in its systemic organization, existence in the form of a set of hierarchically interacting systems, ranging from elementary particles and ending with metagalaxy.
Speaking about the structurality - the internal dissection of material being, it can be noted that there should be a wide range of world-world science, it is closely related to the detection of all new and new structural formations. For example, if earlier a look at the universe was closed by the galaxy, then expanded to the system of galaxies, then the metagalaxy is now being studied as a special system with specific laws, internal and external interactions.
In modern science, the structural analysis method is widely used, which takes into account the systemality of the objects under study. After all, the structurality is the internal dissection of material being, the method of existence of matter. Structural levels of matter are formed from a certain set of objects of any species and are characterized by a special method of interaction between the components of them with elements, with reference to the three main areas of objective reality, these levels look like this (Table).
Table - structural levels of matter
Inorganic nature
Nature
Society
Submicroel-mentor
Biological macromolecular
Individual
Micreagnetary
Cellular
A family
Nuclear
Microorganic
Collective
Atomic
Organs and fabrics
Large social groups (classes, nation)
Molecular
The body in general
State (civil society)
Macro level
Population
Systems of states
Megaurant (planets, star-planetary systems, galaxies)
Biocenosis
Humanity in general
Megaurant (metagalaxy)
Biosphere
Noosphere
Each of the areas of objective reality includes a number of interrelated structural levels. Inside these levels, coordination relations are dominant, and between levels - subordination.
A systemary study of material objects implies not only the establishment of methods for describing relations, links and the structure of a set of elements, but also the allocation of those that are system-forming, i.e. Provide a separate functioning and development of the system. The systematic approach to material formations implies the possibility of understanding the system under consideration high level. For the system is usually characterized by the hierarchy of the structure, i.e. Sequential inclusion of a lower level system in a higher level system.
Thus, the structure of matter at the level of inanimate nature (inorganic) includes elementary particles, atoms, molecules (micromyr objects, macker and megamira objects: planets, galaxies, methagoactic systems, etc.). The metagalaxy is often identified from the whole universe, but the universe is understood in the maximum widespread sense of the word, it is identical to the entire material world and moving matter, which may include many methagoactics and other space systems.
Living nature is also structured. It highlighted the level biological and social level. Biological level includes sublevels:
- macromolecules ( nucleic acids, DNA, RNA, proteins);
- cellular level;
- microorganic (single-celled organisms);
- organs and tissues of the body as a whole;
- population;
- biocenious;
- biosphere.
The main concepts of this level on the last three subcoisers are the concepts of biotop, biocenosis, biosphere, requiring explanations.
Biotop is a set (community) of individuals of the same species (for example, a flock of wolves), which can cross and reproduce such (populations).
Biocenosis is a combination of populations of organisms, in which the products of the vital activity are alone are the conditions for the existence of other organisms inhabiting the sushi or water site.
The biosphere is a global system of life, the part of the geographic environment (the lower part of the atmosphere, the upper part of the lithosphere and the hydrosphere), which is the habitat of living organisms, ensuring the conditions necessary for their survival (temperature, soil, etc.) formed as a result of interaction Biocenoses.
The overall basis of life at the biological level - organic metabolism (metabolism, energy and environmental information) - manifests itself on any of the selected sublevels:
- at the level of organisms, metabolism means assimilation and dissimulation through intracellular transformations;
- at the level of ecosystems (biocenosis) it consists of a substance conversion circuit originally assimilated by organisms-manufacturers with consumer organisms and devoid organisms relating to different types;
- At the level of the biosphere, there is a global cycle of substance and energy with the direct fate of space-scale factors.
At a certain stage of the development of the biosphere, there are special populations of living beings, which, due to their ability to work, formed a peculiar level - social. Social reality in a structural aspect is divided into sublayers: individuals, families, various collectives (production), social groups, etc.
The structural level of social activity is in ambiguous-linear connections among themselves (for example, the level of nations and the level of states). The weave of different levels within the framework of society gives rise to an idea of \u200b\u200bthe domination of chance and chaotic activities in social activities. But attentive analysis reveals the presence of fundamental structures in it - the main spheres of public life, which are material and social, political, spiritual spheres that have their own laws and structures. All of them in a certain sense are subordinated in the composition of socio-economic formation, deeply structured and cause the genetic unity of social development as a whole.
Thus, any of the three regions of material reality is formed from a number of specific structural levels that are in strict orderliness in the composition of a particular area of \u200b\u200breality.
The transition from one region to the other is associated with the complication and an increase in the plurality of formed factors that ensure the integrity of the systems. Inside each of the structural levels, there are subordination relations (the molecular level includes atomic, and not vice versa). The patterns of new levels are not detached to the patterns of levels on the basis of which they arose, and are leading for this level of the organization of matter. Structural organization, i.e. Systemity, is a way to exist matter.
Hypothesis multi-sized model of the Universe
Preface author of the site: The readers of the site "Knowledge-Power" are offered fragments from the 29th chapter of the book of Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov "Memories". Academician of Sakharov talks about works in the field of cosmology, which he led after he began to actively engage in human rights activities - in particular, in the Gorky link. This material is of undoubted interest on the topic "Universe" discussed in this chapter of our site. We will get acquainted with the hypothesis of the multiceld model of the universe and other problems of cosmology and physics. ... And, of course, let us remember our recent tragic past.
Academician Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov (1921-1989).
In Moscow in the 70s and in Gorky, I continued attempts to engage in physics and cosmology. In these years, I could not nominate significantly new ideas, and I continued to develop those directions that were already presented in my works of the 60s (and described in the first part of this book). It is probably a lot of most scientists at their achievement of some limit age for them. However, I do not lose hope that I can, perhaps something else "flashes." At the same time, I must say that simply observing the scientific process in which you yourself do not take part, but you know what to happen to what, it gives deep inner joy. In this sense, I "not greedy."
In 1974, I did, and in 1975 I published a job in which I developed the idea of \u200b\u200bthe zero Lagrangian of the gravitational field, as well as those methods of calculation that I applied in previous works. At the same time it turned out that I came to the method, many years ago by Vladimir Alexandrovich Fock, and then - Julian Sheinger. However, my conclusion itself is the way to build, the methods were completely different. Unfortunately, I could not send my work to Foku - he just died.
Subsequently, I found some errors in my article. In it, it remained not clarified to the end, whether "induced gravity" gives (a modern term applied instead of the term "zero Lagrangian") correct sign of gravitational constant in any options that I have considered.<...>
Three works - one published before my expulsion and two after expulsion - are devoted to cosmological problems. In the first job, I discuss the mechanisms of the occurrence of baryon asymmetry. Some interest, perhaps, represent general considerations of the kinetics of reactions leading to the baryon asymmetry of the Universe. However, specifically in this work, I conduct reasoning as part of my old assumption about the presence of a "combined" law of conservation (the amount of numbers of quarks and leptons is preserved). I already wrote in the first part of the memories, as I came to this idea and why I consider it wrong now. In general, this part of the work seems to me unsuccessful. Much more I like that part of the work, where I write about Multicious model of the Universe . We are talking about the assumption that The cosmological expansion of the Universe is replaced by compression, then with a new extension in such a way that the compression cycles - the extension is repeated infinite number. Such cosmological models have long been attracted attention. Different authors called them "Pulsating" or "Oscillating" Models of the Universe. I like the term more "Multi-Side Model" . It seems more expressive, more relevant emotional and philosophical sense of a grandiose picture of a multiple repetition of cycles of being.
As long as the preservation was assumed, the multi-sized model was, however, with an insurmountable difficulty, the following from one of the basic laws of nature - the second start of thermodynamics.
Retreat. In thermodynamics, a certain characteristic of the body body is introduced. My dad once recalled the old scientific and popular book, which was called "Queen of the World and its shadow." (I unfortunately forgot who the author of this book is forgotten.) The queen is, of course, energy, and the shadow - entropy. In contrast to the energy for which there is a law of preservation, for entropy, the second beginning of the thermodynamics establishes the law of increasing (accurate - non-profit). The processes in which the total entropy bodies does not change are called (considered) reversible. An example of a reversible process - mechanical movement without friction. Reversible processes - abstraction, the event of irreversible processes, accompanied by an increase in the total entropy of the bodies (with friction, heat exchange, etc.). Mathematically entropy is defined as the magnitude, the increase in which is equal to the influx of heat divided into absolute temperature (it is additionally accepted - accurate, follows from the general principles - that entropy with an absolute zero of temperature and vacuum entropy are zero).
Numeric example for clarity. A kind of body having a temperature of 200 degrees gives a second body with a second body having a temperature of 100 degrees. The entropy of the first body decreased by 400/200, i.e. by 2 units, and the entropy of the second body increased by 4 units; The total entropy increased by 2 units, in accordance with the requirement of the second start. Note that this result is a consequence of the fact that heat is transferred from a hotter body to a colder.
Increasing the total entropy in nonequilibrium processes ultimately leads to the heating of the substance. Turn to cosmology, to multi-sized models. If at the same time we assume the number of barione fixed, then entropy, which comes to Barion, will increase indefinitely. The substance with each cycle will not be heated indefinitely, i.e. Conditions in the universe will not be repeated!
The difficulty is eliminated if they refuse to assume the preservation of the Baryon charge and consider, in accordance with my idea of \u200b\u200b1966 and its subsequent development by many other authors, that the Baryon charge arises from Entropy (i.e. neutral hot substance) in the early stages of cosmological Expansion of the universe. In this case, the number of produced baryons is proportional to entropy on each cycle of expansion - compression, i.e. The conditions of the evolution of the substance, the formation of structural forms can be approximately the same in each cycle.
I first introduced the term "multiceld model" in 1969. In our last articles, I use the same term in a somewhat different sense; I mention here about it in order to avoid misunderstandings.
In the first three of the last articles (1979), a model was considered in which the space on average is supposed to be flat. It is also assumed that the cosmological constant Einstein is not equal to zero and negative (although very small in absolute value). In this case, as the equations of the theory of Einstein, the cosmological expansion is inevitably replaced by compression. In this case, each cycle completely repeats the previous one in its middle characteristics. It is essential that the model is spatially flat. Consideration along with a flat geometry (Euclidean geometry) is also the geometry of Lobachevsky and the geometry of the hypersphere (three-dimensional analogue of the two-dimensional sphere) two of the following works are devoted. In these cases, however, another problem arises. An increase in entropy leads to an increase in the radius of the universe at the appropriate moments of each cycle. Extrapplying in the past, we get that only a finite number of cycles could be preceded by each given cycle.
In the "standard" (single olive) cosmology, there is a problem: what was until the maximum density? In multiceld cosmologies (except for the case of a spatially flat model), it is not possible to leave this problem - the question is postponed by the time the expansion of the first cycle. You can become on that point of view that the beginning of the expansion of the first cycle or, in the case of a standard model, the only cycle is the moment of creating the world, and therefore the question of what was before, lies beyond the science research. However, perhaps, as well, or, in my opinion, an approach that admits an unlimited scientific study of the material world and space - time is legitimate and fruitful. At the same time, apparently, there is no place for the act of creation, but the main religious concept of the divine meaning of being is not affected by science, lies beyond its limits.
I know two alternative hypotheses belonging to the problem under discussion. One of them seems to me, for the first time I was expressed by me in 1966 and was subjected to a number of clarifications in subsequent work. This is the hypothesis of the "time turning time". It is closely related to the so-called problem of reversibility.
As I wrote, there are no completely reversible processes in nature. Friction, heat transfer, radiation of light, chemical reactions, life processes are characterized by irreversibility, the separation of the past of the past from the future. If you get on some kind of film irreversible process And then let the movies in the opposite direction, then we will see what cannot happen in reality on the screen (for example, a flywheel rotating in inertia increases the speed of its rotation, and the bearings are cooled). Quantitatively irreversibility is expressed in the monotonous increase in entropy. At the same time, atoms, electrons, atomic nuclei, and the like are part of all bodies. Move through the laws of mechanics (quantum, but it is not significant), which have full reversibility in time (in quantum field theory - with simultaneous CP reflection, see in the first part). The asymmetry of the two directions of time (the presence of the "arrows of time", as they say) with the symmetry of the equations of the movement has long changed the attention of the creators of statistical mechanics. The discussion of this issue began in the last decades of the last century and was sometimes quite violent. The solution that is more or less arranged to all, was a hypothesis that asymmetry is due to the initial conditions of movement and the position of all atoms and fields "in an infinitely remote past." These initial conditions must be in some exactly a certain sense of "random".
As I suggested (in 1966 and in a more clear form - in 1980), in cosmological theories with a dedicated point in time, these random initial conditions should be attributed to the infinitely remote pass (T -\u003e - ∞), and to this selected point (T \u003d 0).
Then automatically at this point entropy has a minimum value, and when it is removed from it in time forward or backward entropy increases. This is what I called "turning the arrows of time." Since when the arrows circulation, all processes are addressed, including information (including life processes), then no paradox appears. The above ideas about the appeal of the arrows of time, as far as I know, did not receive recognition in the scientific world. But they seem interesting to me.
The rotation of the time of the time restores the symmetry of two directions of time inherent in the equations of movement in the cosmological picture of the world.
In 1966-1967 I suggested that at the point of rotation of the arrow of the time there is a CPT reflection. This assumption was one of the starting points of my work on baryon asymmetry. Here I will state another hypothesis (Kirzhnitz, Linde, Gut, Turner and others put a hand; I only have a remark here that there is a turn of the arrow of time).
In modern theories, it is assumed that the vacuum may exist in various states: a stable, with a high accuracy equal to zero energy density; and unstable, possessing a huge positive energy density (effective cosmological constant). The last state is sometimes called a "false vacuum".
One of the solutions of the equations of the general theory of relativity for such theories is such. The universe is closed, i.e. At each moment it is a "hyperspher" of the final volume (the hypersphere is a three-dimensional analogue of the two-dimensional surface of the sphere, the hyperspher can be "nested" into four-dimensional Euclidean space, as well as the two-dimensional sphere "invested" three-dimensional space). The radius of the hypersphere has a minimum final value at some point in time (we denote it t \u003d 0) and increases when removing from this point as ahead and backwards. Entropy is zero for a false vacuum (as well as for any vacuum in general) and when removing from point T \u003d 0 forward or backward in time, it increases due to the decay of a false vacuum moving to a steady state of a true vacuum. Thus, at the point T \u003d 0, the time is rotated (but there is no cosmological CPT-symmetry, which requires an infinite compression at the point of reflection). Just as in the case of CPT-symmetry, all persistent charges are also equal to zero (according to a trivial reason - at t \u003d 0 vacuum state). Therefore, in this case, it is also necessary to assume the dynamic appearance of observed baryon asymmetry, due to violation of CP invariance.
An alternative hypothesis about the prehistory of the Universe is that in fact there is not one universe and not two (as - in a certain sense of the word - in the hypothesis of the direction of the boom of time), and the set of fundamentally different from each other and arising from some "primary" space (or components of its particles; this is probably a different way of expression). Other universes and primary space, if it makes sense to talk about it, may, in particular, have compared to our universe other than "macroscopic" spatial and temporal measurements - coordinates (in our universe - three spatial and one temporary measurement; in All universes can be different!) I ask you to pay special attention to the adjective "macroscopic" prisoner in quotation. It is associated with the "compactization" hypothesis, according to which most measurements are compactible, i.e. Challenged itself on a very small scale.
Structure "Mega-Universe"It is assumed that there is no causal connection between different universe. This is what justifies their interpretation as separate universes. I call this grand structure of the Mega-Universe. Some authors discussed the options for such hypotheses. In particular, the hypothesis of the multiple birth of closed (approximately hypersemic) universes protects in one of the works of Ya.B. Zeldovich.
The ideas of the Mega-Universe are extremely interesting. Perhaps truth lies in this direction. For me, some of these constructions are, however, one ambiguity is somewhat technical. It is quite possible to assume that conditions in various areas of space are completely different. But necessarily the laws of nature should be everywhere and always alone and the same. Nature cannot be similar to the Queen in the fairy tale of Carroll "Alice in Wonderland", which in his arbitrarity has changed the rules of the game in the crocketh. Being is not a game. My doubts refer to the hypothesians that allow the breaking of space continuity - time. Are such processes are given? Are there any violation at the points of the gap of the laws of nature, and not "the conditions of being"? I repeat, I'm not sure that these are reasonable fears; Maybe I'm again, as in the question of the preservation of the number of fermions, it comes from too narrow point of view. In addition, hypotheses are completely thoughtless, where the birth of the universes occurs without disrupting continuity.
The assumption that the birth of many people spontaneously occurs, and perhaps the infinite number of the universes that differ in their parameters and that the universe surrounding us is highlighted among the many worlds that the condition of life and mind has become the name of the "Anthropic principle" (AP). Zeldovich writes that the first consideration of the AP in the context of the expanding universe belongs to Idlis (1958). The concept of the multiceld Universe, the anthropic principle can also play a role, but to choose between consistent cycles or their regions. This feature is considered in my work "Multilant Models of the Universe". One of the difficulties of multiceld models is that the formation of "black holes" and their merger violates symmetry at the compression stage, which is completely incomprehensible, whether the conditions of the next cycle are suitable for the formation of highly organized structures. On the other hand, the processes of breakdown of barion and evaporation of black holes occur in sufficiently long cycles, leading to the smoothing of all density inhomogeneities. I assume that the cumulative effect of these two mechanisms - the formation of black holes and leveling inhomogeneities - leads to the consistent change of more "smooth" and more "perturbed" cycles. Our cycle, by assumption, was preceded by a "smooth" cycle, during which black holes were not formed. For certainty, you can consider the closed universe with the "false" vacuum at the point of rotation of the arrow of the time. The cosmological constant in this model can be considered equal to zero, the change of expansion with compression occurs simply due to the mutual attraction of a conventional substance. The duration of cycles increases due to the growth of entropy at each cycle and exceeds any given number (tends to infinity), so the conditions for the collapse of protons and evaporation of "black holes" are performed.
Multilant models give an answer to the so-called paradox of large numbers (another possible explanation - in the hypothesis of Guta and others, as imposing a long-lasting stage of "inflating", see chapter 18).
Planet on the outskirts of a distant ball star cluster. Artist © Don DixonWhy the total number of protons and photons in the universe of the final volume is so unbarrowed great, although of course? And the other form of this issue relating to the "open" option - why is the number of particles in the area of \u200b\u200bthe infinite world of Lobachevsky, the volume of which is about a 3 (and is the radius of curvature)?
The answer that is given by the multi-sized model is very simple. It is assumed that many cycles have already passed since t \u003d 0, during each cycle, entropy increased (ie, the number of photons) and, accordingly, in each cycle, an increasing baryon excess was generated. The ratio of the number of bariones to the number of photons in each cycle is constantly, as it is determined by the dynamics of the initial stages of the expansion of the universe in this cycle. The total number of cycles from the moment T \u003d 0 is just that it turned out the observed number of photons and baryons. As their number growth occurs in geometric progressionFor the required number of cycles, we will not get even so important.
The side result of my work of 1982 is the formula for the probability of gravitational sticking of black holes (an assessment in Zeldovich and Novikov's book is used).
Another intriguing imagination is associated with multi-sample models. Maybe a highly organized mind, developing billions of billions of years for a cycle, finds a way to convey in the encoded form. Some very valuable part of its information has its heirs in the following cycles separated from this time cycle in a period of the super-state state. .. The analogy - Transmission of alive creatures from generation to generation of genetic information, "compressed" and coded in chromosomes of the nucleus of the fertilized cell. This feature, of course, is completely fantastic, and I did not decide to write about it in scientific articles, but the pages of this book gave yourself will. But independently of this dream hypothesis of the multi-sized model of the Universe seems to me important in the worldview of the philosophical plan.
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You have disabled work Javascript.. Please turn on the browser scripts, and you will open the full functionality of the site!8.2. Development of ideas about the universe. Models of the Universe
Historically, the ideas about the universe always developed in the framework of the mental models of the Universe, starting with the ancient myths. In the mythology of almost any people, the myths about the universe - its origin, entity, structure, relationships and possible reasons end.
In most of the ancient myths, the world (the Universe) is not eternal, it is created by the highest forces of a certain primary (substance), usually from water or from chaos. Time in ancient cosmogonic ideas is most often cyclically, i.e. The events of birth, the existence and death of the Universe follow each other in a circle, like all objects in nature. The universe is a single whole, all its elements are interconnected, the depth of these ties is different until possible mutual and events follow each other, replacing each other (winter and summer, day and night). This world order is opposed to chaos. The world's space is limited. Higher forces (sometimes gods) are either the creators of the Universe or the Guardians of World Procedure. The structure of the universe in myths involves multi-layered: along with a manifested (median) world, there are upper and lower worlds, the axis of the universe (often in the form of a world tree or mountain), the center of the world is a place endowed with special sacral properties, there is a connection between the individual layers of the world. The existence of the world thinks regressively - from the "Golden Age" to decay and death. A man in ancient myths can be an analogue of the whole space (the whole world is created from a giant being similar to a man-giant), which strengthens the connection of man and the universe. In ancient models, a person never takes a central place.
In the VI-V centuries. BC. The first naturophilosophical models of the universe are created, most developed in ancient Greece. The ultimate concept in these models is space as a whole, beautiful and law-free. The question of how the world was formed is complemented by the question of which the world is arranged, as it changes. Answers are formulated not figuratively, but an abstract, philosophical language. Time in models most often is also cyclical, but the space is of course. As a substance, they act as separate elements (water, air, fire - in Miletsky school and in Heraclita), a mixture of elements and a single, indivisible fixed space (in Eleans), ontologized number (in Pythagoreans), indivisible structural units - Atoms that ensure the unity of the world - at democrites. It is the model of the universe of the democritus endlessly in space. Naturophilosophes determined the status of space objects - stars and planets, differences between them, their role and interconnection in the Universe. In most models, motion plays a significant role. Cosmos built according to a single law - Logos, the same law is subordinated to the man - a microcosm, a reduced copy of the space.
The development of Pythagorean views, geometrizing space and for the first time, clearly presented it in the form of a sphere rotating around the central fire and the same surrounded, was embodied in the late dialogues of Plato. The logical vertex of antiquity views on space for a long century was considered the Aristotle model, mathematically treated with Ptolem. In a few simplified form, this model supported by the authority of the Church existed about 2 thousand years. According to Aristotle, the Universe: oh there is a comprehensive whole, consisting of a set of all perceived bodies; O is the only one of its kind;
about spatially finite, limited to the extreme celestial sphere,
thereby "there is no emptiness, no place"; O eternally, it is imperative and infinite in time. At the same time, the Earth is still and is located in the center of the Universe, earthly and heavenly (permanent) are absolutely opposed to their physico-chemical composition and the nature of the movement.
In X1U-X\u003e / 1 centuries, in the Renaissance, the natural philosophical models of the universe are again arising. They are characterized, on the one hand, returning to the latitude and philosophy of antiquity views, and on the other - strict logic and mathematics inherited from the Middle Ages. As a result of the theoretical surveys, Nikolay Kuzansky, N. Copernicus, J. Bruno offer models of the universe with an infinite space, an irreversible linear time, heliocentric solar system and many worlds like it. Galilee, continuing this tradition, investigated the laws of motion - the property of the inertia and the first consciously used mental models (constructs, later became the basis of theoretical physics), the mathematical language, which he considered the universal language of the Universe, the combination of empirical methods and theoretical hypothesis, which the experience should Confirm or refute, and finally astronomical observations with a telescope, significantly expanding science opportunities.
Galilee, R. Descarte, I. Kepler laid the foundations of modern physical and cosmogonic ideas about the world, and on their base and on the basis of Newton open laws in the late XVII century. The first scientific cosmological model is the universe-based name of the classic Newtonian. According to this model, the universe: about static (stationary), i.e. on average unchanged in time; Oh homogeneous - all points of its equal fee; O isotropic - equal and all directions; O eternally and spatially infinite, with space and time absolute - do not depend on each other and from moving masses; O has an excellent density of matter; O has a structure that is completely comprehended in the language of the cash system of physical knowledge, which means the infinite extrapolarification of the laws of mechanics, the law of the world, which are basic laws for the movement of all cosmic bodies.
In addition, the universe is applicable to the principle of long-range effects, i.e. Instant signal distribution; The unity of the universe is ensured by a single structure - an atomic structure of the substance.
The empirical database of this model was all data obtained in astronomical observations, a modern mathematical apparatus was used to process them. This design relied on determinism and materialism of the rationalist philosophy of the new time. Despite the discovered contradictions (photometric and gravitational paradoxes - the consequences of the extrapolation of the model into infinity), ideological attractiveness and logical consistency, as well as the heuristic potential made a Newtonian model with the only acceptable for cosmologists until the XX century.
To the need to revise views on the universe, numerous discoveries made in the XIX and XX centuries were pushed: the presence of pressure of light, the delicacy of the atom, the mass defect, the model of the building of the atom, the non-planning geometry of Riemann and Lobachevsky, but only with the advent of the theory of relativity was the possible new quantum-relativistic Model universe.
From the equations of the special (STO, 1905) and the general (from 1916) the theory of relativity A. Einstein it follows that the space and time are interconnected into a single metric, depend on the moving matter: at speeds close to the shooting light, The space is compressed, time is stretched, and near compact powerful masses space-time is twisted, thereby model the universe is geometrized. There were even attempts to imagine the entire universe as a curved space-time, nodes and defects of which were interpreted as masses.
Einstein, solving equations for the universe, received a model limited in space and stationary. But to preserve the stationarity, it was required to introduce an additional lambda member into solutions, which empirically did not support the equivalent field opposing gravity at cosmological distances. However, in 1922-1924. A.A. Friedman proposed a different solution of these equations from which the possibility of obtaining three different models of the Universe depending on the density of matter, but all three models were non-stationary (evolving) - a model with an extension, a compression, an oscillating model and a model with an infinite expansion. At that time, the rejection of the stationarity of the Universe was truly a revolutionary step and was perceived by scientists with great difficulty, as it seemed contrary to all established scientific and philosophical views on nature, inevitably leading to creationanism.
The first experimental confirmation of the nonstationarity of the Universe was obtained in 1929 - Hubble opened a red shift in the spectra of remote galaxies, which, according to the effect of Doppler, testified to the expansion of the Universe (this interpretation was then divided by all cosmologists). In 1932-1933 Belgian theorist J. Lemegro proposed a model of the Universe with the "hot principle", the so-called "large explosion". But in the 1940s and in the 1950s. Offered alternative models (with the birth of particles from the C-field, from vacuum), preserving the stationarity of the universe.
In 1964, American scientists - Astrophysicist A. Penzias and Radiastron K. Wilson discovered homogeneous isotropic relic radiation, which clearly testify to the "hot start" of the Universe. This model has become dominant, was recognized by the majority of cosmologists. However, this point "beginning", the point of singularity gave birth many problems and disputes both about the mechanism of the "Big Explosion", and because the behavior of the system (universe) near it could not be described in the framework of the well-known scientific theories (infinitely large temperature and density should have been combined with infinitely small sizes). In the XX century A variety of universe models were put forward - from those who rejected as the basis the theory of relativity, to those that changed in the basic model, for example, the "Universe" cellular structure or the theory of strings. So, to remove contradictions associated with singularity, in 1980-1982. American astronomer P. Steinhart and Soviet Astrophysicik A. Linde offered a modification of the model of the expanding universe - a model with an inflationary phase (model of the "inflating universe"), in which the first moments after the "Big Explosion" received a new interpretation. This model continued to refine and later, she removed a number of significant problems and contradictions of cosmology. Studies do not stop today: a group of Japanese scientists a hypothesis of the origin of primary magnetic fields is well consistent with the model described above and allows you to expect new knowledge about the early stages of the existence of the Universe.
As an object of study, the Universe is too complicated to study it deductive, the ability to move forward in its knowledge is methods of extrapolation and modeling. However, these methods require accurate compliance with all procedures (from the formulation of the problem, selecting parameters, the degree of similarity of the model and the original to the interpretation of the results obtained), and even with the ideal fulfillment of all requirements, research results will be fundamentally probabilistic.
Mathematicalization of knowledge that significantly enhancing the heuristic possibilities of many methods is a general trend of science XX century. Cosmology did not exception: a variety of mental simulation arose - mathematical modeling, method of mathematical hypothesis. Its essence is that the equations are first solved, and then the physical interpretation of the solutions obtained is divided. This procedure that is not characteristic of the science of the past has a colossal either-defective potential. It was this method that brought Friedman to the creation of a model of the expanding universe, it was this way a positron was opened and many more important discoveries were made in the science of the end of the XX century.
Computer models, including in the modeling of the universe, are born by the development of computer equipment. On their basis, the model of the universe with the inflationary phase is finalized; At the beginning of the XXI century. Large arrays of information obtained from the cosmic probe are processed and a model for the development of the universe, taking into account the "dark matter" and "dark energy".
Over time, the interpretation of many fundamental concepts changed.
The physical vacuum is already understood not as emptiness, not as a broadcast, but as a complex state with a potential (virtual) content of matter and energy. At the same time, the cosmic bodies and fields known to modern science are a minor percentage of the mass of the universe, and most of the mass is enclosed in indirectly detecting "dark matter" and "dark energy". Studies of recent years have shown that a significant part of this energy acts on expansion, stretching, breaking the universe, which can lead to a fixed expansion acceleration. In this regard, it requires revision of the scenario of a possible future universe. Time Categories is one of the categories most discussed in cosmology. Most researchers give time objective nature, but according to the tradition coming from Augustine and I. Kant, time and space are the forms of our contemplation, i.e. They are interpreted subjectively. Time is considered either as a parameter that does not depend on any factors (the substantial concept coming from democritus and underlying the classical Newtonian model of the Universe), or as a parameter associated with the flow of matter (relational concept, coming from Aristotle and has become the basis of quantum - Relivist model of the Universe). The most common dynamic concept, which represents the time moving (talk about the flow of time), but the opposite concept has been put forward - static. Time in various models acts or cyclic, or finite, or infinite and linear. The essence of time is most often associated with causality. Problems are discussed as the rationale for the discharge of the present time, its orientation, anisotropy, irreversibility, the versatility of time, i.e. With all the states of the universe, there is time and whether it is always one-dimensional or may have a different dimension and do not even exist under certain conditions (for example, at the point of singularity). The least developed the question of the peculiarities of time in complex systems: biological, mental, social.
When creating models of the Universe, some constants play a significant role - a gravitational constant, constant bar, the speed of light, the average density of matter, the number of measurements of space-time. Exploring these constants, some cosmologists came to the conclusion that at other values \u200b\u200bof these constants in the universe would not exist complex shapes Matters, not to mention life and the more reason.
Bibliographic list
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Latypov H.H., Balin V.A., Veshkov G.M. Vacuum, elementary particles and universe. M., 2001.
Linde A.D. Physics of elementary particles and inflationary cosmology. M., 1990.
Nacadeev A.c. Philosophy and science in the era of antiquity. M., 1990.
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Pavlenko A.N. European cosmology: the foundation of epistemological turn. M., 1997.
Hawking S. from a large explosion to black holes. M., 1990.
COSMOLOGY- section of astronomy and astrophysics, studying the origin, large-scale structure and evolution of the universe. Data for cosmology is mainly obtained from astronomical observations. For their interpretation, the general theory of A. Einstein's relativity is currently used (1915). The creation of this theory and the conduct of the relevant observations allowed in the early 1920s to put cosmology in a number of accurate sciences, whereas before it was rather a region of philosophy. Two cosmological schools have emerged: empiricals are limited to the interpretation of observational data, not extrapolating their models into unexplored areas; Theorists are trying to explain the observed universe using some hypotheses selected according to the principle of simplicity and elegance. The cosmological model of a large explosion is used to be widely fame, according to which the expansion of the universe began some time ago from a very dense and hot state; Stationary is discussedthe model of the universe, in which it exists forever and has no beginning, no end. Cosmological dataUnder cosmological data understand the results of experimentsand observations related to the universe as a whole in a wide range of space and time. Any thought cosmological model must satisfy this data. 6 main observational facts can be distinguished, which must explain the cosmology:
1. On a large scale, the universe is homogeneous and isotropic, i.e. The galaxies and their clusters are distributed in the space evenly (uniformly), and their movement is chaotic and does not have a clearly selected direction (isotropic). The principle of Copernicus, "shifting the land from the center of the world," was summarized by astronomers on the solar system and our galaxy, which also turned out to be quite ordinary. Therefore, excluding small heterogeneities in the distribution of galaxies and their clusters, astronomers consider the universe as homogeneous everywhere, as near us.
2. The Universe expands. Galaxies are removed from each other.
It discovered American astronomer E.Habble in 1929. The Hubble Law states: the further the galaxy, the faster it is removed from us.But this does not mean that we are in the center of the Universe: in any other galaxy, observers see the same. With the help of new telescopes, astronomers deepened into the universe much further than Hubble, but his law remained faithful.3. The space around the earth is filled with background microwave
radio emission. Opened in 1965, it became, along with galaxies, the main object of cosmology. Its important property is high isotropy (independence from direction), indicating its relationship with distant areas of the universe and confirming their high homogeneity. If it were the radiation of our galaxy, it would reflect its structure. But experiments on cylinders and satellites have proven that it is radiation in high degree Uniformly and has a absolutely black body emission spectrum with a temperature of about 3 K. Obviously, it is a relic radiation of a young and hot universe that has been strongly cooled as a result of its expansion.4. Age of land, meteorites and the oldest stars a little
less age of the universe calculated by the speed of its expansion.In accordance with the Hubble Law, the Universe expands everywhere at the same rate, which is called permanent Hubble N.. It can be assessed by the age of the universe as 1 / N.. Modern measurements N. lead to the age of the universe approx. 20 billion years. Studies of radioactive decay products in meteorites give age approach. 10 billion years, and the oldest stars have an age approach. 15 billion years. Until 1950, the distance to the galaxies were underestimated, which resulted in an overestimation N. And the small age of the Universe, a smaller age of the earth. To resolve this contradiction, G. Bondi, T. Agold and F.Hyl in 1948 proposed a stationary cosmological model in which the age of the universe is infinite, and as the extension will be born, a new substance is born.5. In the entire observed universe, from close stars to the most distant galaxies, for every 10 hydrogen atoms account for 1 Helium atom. It seems incredible that the local conditions were so the same everywhere. The strong side of the Large Explosion model is just that it predicts the same ratio between helium and hydrogen everywhere.
6. In the areas of the Universe removed from us in space and in time, more active galaxies and quasars than next to us. This indicates the evolution of the universe and contradicts the theory of the stationary universe.
Cosmological modelsAny cosmological model of the Universe relies on a certain theory of gravity. There are many such theories, but only some of them satisfy the observed phenomena. Newton's theory does not satisfy them even within the solar system. The overall theory of Einstein's relativity is best consistent with observations, on the basis of which the Russian meteorologist A.Fridman in 1922 and the Belgian Abbot and Mathematician W. Maler in 1927 mathematically described the expansion of the Universe. From the cosmological principle that postulates the spatial homogeneity and isotropy of the world, they received a large explosion model. Their conclusion was confirmed when Hubble discovered the relationship between the distance and the speed of galaxies. The second important prediction of this model made by G. Gamov, concerned the relic radiation, observed now as the balance of the Epoch of the Big Bang. Other cosmological models cannot also naturally explain this isotropic background radiation.Hot big explosion. According to the Cosmological model of Friedman - Lemeter, the universe arose at the time of the Big Bang - approx. 20 billion years ago, and its expansion continues until now, gradually slowing down. In the first moment of the explosion of the Matter of the Universe had endless density and temperature; This condition is called singularity.
According to the general theory of relativity, gravity is not a real force, but there is a curvature of space-time: the more the density of matter, the stronger curvature. At the time of initial singularity, the curvature was also infinite. You can express an endless curvature of space-time in other words, saying that in the initial moment of matter and space at the same time exploded everywhere in the universe. As the space of the expanding universe, the density of matter falls in it. S. Khoking and R. Penrose proved that in the past it was certainly a singular state if the overall theory of relativity is applicable to describe the physical processes in a very early universe.
To avoid catastrophic singularity in the past, it is necessary to significantly change physics, for example, assuming the possibility of spontaneous continuous birth of matter, as in the theory of the stationary universe. But astronomical observations do not give any reason for this.
The earlier events we consider, the less their spatial scale was; As it approaches the beginning of the expansion, the horizon of the observer is compressed (Fig. 1). In the very first moments, the scale is so small that we are no longer able to apply the general theory of relativity: to describe the phenomena in such a small scale Quantum mechanics (cm. QUANTUM MECHANICS). But the quantum theory of gravity does not exist, so no one knows how events developed until 10
-43 C, called planck time(in honor of the Father Quantum theory). At that moment, the density of matter reached an incredible value of 1090 kg / cm 3 which cannot be compared not only with the density of the bodies around us (less than 10 g / cm3 ), but even with the density of the atomic nucleus (approx. 1012 kg / cm 3 ) - the greatest density available in the laboratory. Therefore, for modern physics, the beginning of the extension of the Universe is the plank time.Under such conditions, the birth of the Universe was unthinkable and the density took place. Moreover, it could be a birth in the literal sense: some cosmologists (let's say, Ya.B. Zeldovich in the USSR and L.Parker in the USA) believed that the particles and gamma photons were born in that era of the gravitational field. From the point of view of physics, this process could take place if the singularity was anisotropic, i.e. The gravitational field was inhomogeneous. In this case, tidal gravitational forces could "pull out the real particles from vacuum, thus creating the substance of the universe.
Studying the processes that took place immediately after the Big Bang, we understand that our physical theories are still very imperfect. The thermal evolution of the early universe depends on the birth of massive elementary particles - hadrons, which nuclear physics knows still little. Many of these particles are unstable and short-lived. The Swiss physicist R. Khagdorn believes that there may be a great many hadrons of increasing masses, which in abundance could be formed at a temperature of about 10
12 To, when the gigantic density of radiation led to the birth of hadron pairs consisting of particles and antiparticles. This process would have to limit the temperature rise in the past.According to another point of view, the number of types of massive elementary particles is limited, so the temperature and density during the admin era should have achieved endless values. In principle, this could be verified: if the components of the hadrons - quarks were stable particles, then a number of quarks and antiquarks should have been preserved from the hot era. But the search for quarks was vain; Most likely, they are unstable. Cm . also particles are elementary.
After the first millisecond of the expansion of the Universe, strong (nuclear) interaction ceased to play a decisive role in it: the temperature declined so much that the atomic nuclei ceased to collapse. Further physical processes were determined by weak interaction responsible for the birth of light particles - leptons (i.e. electrons, positrons, mesons and neutrinos) under the action of thermal radiation. When during the expansion, the radiation temperature dropped to about 10
10 K, lepton couples stopped born, almost all positrons and electrons annihilated; Only neutrinos and antineutrino remained, photons and a bit preserved with the previous era of protons and neutrons. So the lepton era ended.The next phase of expansion is a photon era - characterized by the absolute predominance of thermal radiation. On each preserved proton or electron accounts for a billion photons. At first, it was gamma quanta, but as the universe expands, they lost energy and became x-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared and, finally, were now radio-ducts that we accept as black-meal background (relict) radio emission.
Unresolved problems of cosmology of a large explosion. You can mark 4 problems now before the cosmological model of the Big Bang.1. The problem of singularity: many doubt the applicability of the general theory of relativity, which gives singularity in the past. Alternative cosmological theories free from singularity are proposed.
2. Closely related to the singularity problem of the isotropy of the universe. It seems strange that the expansion that started from the singular state turned out to be so isotropic. It is not excluded that the anisotropic initial expansion gradually became isotropic under the action of dissipative forces.
3. Uniform on the largest scale, on a smaller scale, the universe is very inhomogeneous (galaxies, accumulation of galaxies). It is difficult to understand how one gravity could lead to the emergence of such a structure. Therefore, cosmologists explore the possibilities of inhomogeneous models of a large explosion.
4. Finally, you can ask what is the future of the universe? For a response, you need to know the average density of matter in the universe. If it exceeds some critical value, then the geometry of space-time is closed, and in the future the universe will certainly be squeezed. The closed universe does not have borders, but its volume is finite. If the density is below the critical, the universe is open and will expand forever. The open universe is infinite and has only one singularity at the beginning. While the observations are best consistent with the open universe model.
The origin of a large-scale structure. Cosmologists have two opposite points of view on this problem.The most radical is that at first there was chaos. The expansion of the early universe occurred extremely anisotropically and ineumonously, but then dissipative processes smoothed anisotropy and brought the expansion to the Friedman model - Lemeter. The fate of inhomogeneities is very curious: if their amplitude was big, they were inevitably needed to collapse into black holes with a mass defined by the current horizon. Their formation could start right from the plank time, so that the universe could have a lot of small black holes with the masses of up to 10
-5 Mr. However, S.Hoking showed that "mini-holes" should, radiating, lose their mass, and only black holes with the masses of more than 10 could continue to lose their era.16 G, which corresponds to the mass of a small mountain. Cm . also a black hole.Primary chaos could contain perturbations of any scale and amplitude; The largest of them in the form of sound waves could be preserved from the era of the early universe to the era of radiation, when the substance was still hot enough to emit, absorb and dispel radiation. But with the end of this era, the cooled plasma recombined and ceased to interact with radiation. The pressure and speed of sound in the gas fell, as a result of which the sound waves turned into shock waves, compressing gas and force it to collapse in the galaxies and their clusters. Depending on the type of source waves, calculations predict a very different picture, far from always appropriate. To select between possible options for cosmological models, one philosophical idea, known as the Anthropic principle, is important: from the very beginning, the universe was supposed to have such properties that allowed for the galaxies, stars, planets and reasonable life on them. Otherwise, there was no one to engage in cosmology.
An alternative point of view is that the initial structure of the Universe can be found no more that they give observations. According to this conservative approach, the young Universe chaotic cannot be considered, since it is now very isotropic and homogeneous. The deviations from homogeneity, which we observe in the form of galaxies, could grow under the action of gravity from small initial density heterogeneities. However, the studies of the large-scale distribution of galaxies (mostly carried out by J. Plis in Princeton), it seems, do not confirm this idea. Another interesting opportunity is that the accumulations of black holes born in the adronle era could become the initial fluctuations for the formation of galaxies.
Open or closed universe? The nearest galaxies are removed from us at a speed proportional to the distance; But more distant does not obey this dependence: their movement indicates that the expansion of the universe slows down with time. In a closed model of the Universe under the action of gravity, the expansion at a certain point stops and is replaced by compression (Fig. 2), but observations show that the deceleration of galaxies is still not so fast so that the complete stop has ever occurred.In order for the universe to be closed, the average density of matter in it should exceed a certain critical value. Evaluation of the density of the visible and invisible substance is very close to this value.
The distribution of galaxies in space is very inhomogeneously. Our local group of galaxies, including the Milky Way, Andromeda Nebula and a few smaller galaxies, lies on the periphery of a huge system of galaxies, known as the supercount in Virgo (Virgo), the center of which coincides with the cluster of Virgo galaxies. If the average density of the world is large and the universe is closed, it should have been observed a strong deviation from an isotropic expansion caused by attraction of our and neighboring galaxies to the super-consumption center. In the open universe, this deviation is insignificant. Observations are more consistent with the open model.
The great interest of cosmologists causes the content in the satellite of the heavy isotope of hydrogen - deuterium, which was formed during nuclear reactions in the first moments after a large explosion. The deuterium content turned out to be extremely sensitive to the density of the substance in the epoch, and therefore in our. However, the "deuterium test" is not easy, for it is necessary to investigate the primary substance that has not visited the depths of stars from the moment of cosmological synthesis, where deuterium is easily burning. The study of extremely distant galaxies showed that the deuterium content corresponds to the low density of matter and, therefore, the open model of the universe.
Alternative cosmological models. Generally speaking, at the very beginning of its existence, the universe could be quite chaotic and heterogeneous; Footprints of this we may see today in the large-scale distribution of the substance. However, the chaos period could not last long. High homogeneity of the cosmic background radiation indicates that the universe was very homogeneous at the age of 1 million. The calculations of cosmological nuclear synthesis indicate that if after 1 second after the start of the expansion there were large deviations from the standard model, the composition of the universe would be completely different than in reality. However, what was during the first second can still argue. In addition to the standard high explosion model, in principle there are alternative cosmological models:1. The model, symmetric relative to matter and antimatter, involves an equal presence of these two species in the universe. Although it is obvious that our galaxy practically does not contain antimatter, the neighboring star systems could completely consist of it; At the same time, their radiation would be exactly the same as normal galaxies. However, in earlier extension epochs, when the substance and antimatter were in a closer contact, their annihilation should have given birth to powerful gamma radiation. Observations do not discover it, which makes a symmetrical model unlikely.
2. In the cold large explosion model, it is assumed that the expansion began at the absolute zero temperature. True, in this case, nuclear synthesis should occur and warmat the substance, but the microwave background radiation cannot be directly associated with a large explosion, and it is necessary to explain somehow differently. This theory is attractive in that the substance in it is subject to fragmentation, and this is necessary to explain the large-scale heterogeneity of the universe.
3. The stationary cosmological model involves the continuous birth of a substance. The main position of this theory, known as the ideal cosmological principle, argues that the Universe has always been and remains like now. Observations refute it.
4. Considered the modified variants of Einstein theory of gravity. For example, the theory of K. Brans and R.Dikka from Princeton generally agrees with observations within the solar system. The Branz - Dickka model, as well as a more radical model F.Khuli, in which some fundamental constants vary over time, have almost the same cosmological parameters in our era, as well as the large explosion model.
5. Based on the modified Einstein theory of railway Maler in 1925, a cosmological model was built, uniting a large explosion with a long phase of a calm state during which the galaxies could have been formed. Einstein became interested in this opportunity to justify his favorite cosmological model of the static universe, but when the universe was opened, he publicly refused her.
In scale of 10-13 cm - strong interactions, the integrity of the core is ensured by nuclear forces.
The integrity of atoms, molecules, macrotel provide electromagnetic forces.
