The Board of Alexander II became a period that is often referred to as the "epoch of reforms", destroyed feudal remnants, the time of radical transformations russian society. Unlike the Father, he was prepared for government management. The emperor received a good education, and his teachers were V. Zhukovsky, M. Speransky, E. Kankin, who noted in the heir of such qualities as goodwill, sociability, ability to science, but on the other hand, the tendency to retreat before difficulties. Alexander II became the emperor at 36 years old, with a fully established system of views and having experience of state activities. Having joined the throne, the emperor was forced to go along the path of reforms.

Backgrounds of reform

The premises of reforms became the constant threat of peasant riots, a political and economic crisis. Defeat B. Crimean war Not only reduced to the limit to the international authority of Russia, but also showed the need for reforms in financial, military, medical, educational spheres. Another prerequisite was the dissatisfaction with the society by the Police Nikolaev regime and the constant threat of social speeches. The situation has developed a favorable situation - the emperor supported supporters of reforms (P. Valuev, Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich, D. Milyutin, etc.); Liberals and the revolutionary movement were not organized and could not offer an alternative reform plan; Opponents of reforms after defeat in the Crimean War did not dare to oppose transformations. Therefore, in 1856, Alexander II spoke in front of the Moscow nobility with a famous speech, in which he stated that "it is better to cancel serfdom From above, rather than waiting for the time when it will begin to cancel from below. "

Abolition of serfdom

The most important event of the Board of Alexander II, for which he received the name "Liberator", was the reform of 1861, which had canceled the serfdom. Preparation of the abolition of serfdom began in January 1857. With the creation of the next secret committee, fully submitted to the emperor. Already by November, the rescript was compiled, who announced the beginning of the abolition of serfdom and prescribed to create in each province noble committees for the development of proposals. This was the beginning of the general discussion of the peasant question in the press. In February 1858, the Secret Committee was renamed the Chief Committee for the Peasantius, which began to consider the projects compiled by the provincial nice committees. During the discussion, a project was developed for which the peasants are given freedom, but without applying land. This caused the intensification of the peasant movement in 1858. The government decided to revise the project of the liberation of peasants and to reform more radically. In order to process project in February 1859, the editorial commissions were established in St. Petersburg, which included predominantly liberals, under the leadership of N. Milyutin. By the fall of 1859, the project "Regulations on peasants" was drawn up. On February 19, 1861, a reform was carried out, which had canceled the serfdom. Alexander II signed the "Regulations on the peasants who came out of the fortress dependence", according to which the peasants were exempted from personal dependence. The peasant reform consisted of several parts: the ownership of landowners on the peasants was canceled, which could now go to the city's earnings or to hire a landowner. The landowner lost the right to punish the peasants, they became legal entities, that is, they could buy land, real estate, conclude transactions, open enterprises. However, the peasants remained attached to the place of residence, they were associated with a circular place in the payment of taxes, naturally visited.

In addition, the peasants received watered put on a rather complex scheme, which also significantly limited their movement. For two years, statutory letters should have been drawn up - agreements between landlords and peasants, stipulating the conditions of ransom. After that, for 49 years, the peasants became "temporary-shaped" and should have been paid by the landowner. Only after that, she became the property of the peasants. The amount of redemption payments was determined by the sizes of the peasant lifestyle, i.e., not a personal dependence of peasants and not land, but a means of means. This amount put in the bank under 6% per annum was supposed to offer an annual income in the amount of officer payments. The state accent between the peasant and landowner was the state, it paid a landowner at the conclusion of a redeeming transaction about 75% of the redemption amount. The peasants were supposed to annually enter the state 6% of this amount within 49 years. The yard people were announced free without redemption, but for two years they had to serve their owners or pay the lifts. Fortress work landlords and government factories and plants were transferred to the lifts and received the right to buy out their former posts. State peasants (except Siberia and the Far East), those who were considered personally free, on the "Regulation" retained the land in their use. They could continue to pay a worn to file the state or conclude with a repurchase deal. "Position" shared the province into three parts (chernozem, non-black and steppe land). Inside the provinces were distinguished by the terrain, which were shared on the plots between landowners-lands and their peasants. The rules of delere were established in such a way that the landowner could choose the best sites in his share, including embedding his lands in the middle of the peasant fields. This led to the emergence of the "sevisper". The reaction of peasants to reform was different. So, for example, in the Kazan province, excitement began due to the spread of rumors that the king gave the land to the peasants for free, and the ransom "invented" the landowners. In the course of the suppression of these excitement, more than 300 people were killed. In 1861, more than 1370 speeches were registered, later the wave of performances decided. In general, the liberation of the peasants was a progressive step that destroyed the feudal relics - serfdom, which led to cash inflows in agriculture, undermined the "natural" ways of farms, contributed to the development of capitalism.

Reforms 60 ~ xs. XIX century

Conducting peasant reform demanded changes in other areas of life. Finance reform. In 1860, a state bank was established for redemption settlements between landlords and peasants. In 1862, the Ministry of Finance was the only manager manager, which independently planned the state budget and jointly with the State Council approved the estimates of individual departments. To control the means in 1864, the GOSP was reformed by the gift control, which was no longer dependent on the administration and carried out verification of the proper spending of budgetary funds. The provinces established the control chambers, which told the financial statements on primary documents, and not the final reports, as before. Direct taxes were partially replaced by indirect.

Reform local governments (Zemskaya reform).

On January 1, 1864, Zemstvo (all-known bodies in counties and provinces) were established, whose competence included: local economy, distribution of public serving, a device of schools, hospitals, shelters, the content of prisons and communication paths. Inside the scum was the administrative and executive sectors. Regulatory bodies - "Collections of vowels" (deputies) - were engaged in economic issues and gathered once a year. Executive bodies - "Zemskie Management" - engaged in the execution of the decision of the administrative sector. Financing for the fulfillment of resolutions was mixed: 80% of funds were received from the state, the rest - at the expense of local taxes (self-financing). Elections to Zemstvo administrative bodies were conducted on the basis of property cencing, in Kuria. The first Kuria - deputies from landowners - consisted of land owners (from 200 to 800 tens) or real estate (cost from 15 thousand rubles) Second Kuria - deputies from cities - united the owners of industrial and trading institutions (annual turnover of at least 6 thousand. rub.). Elections on the third curia deputies from the peasants are -Bescene, but multistage. Zemstvo was elected for three years. The chairman of the Zemsky meeting was to be the leader of the nobility. In the late 70s. Zemstvo was introduced only in 35 out of 59 Russian provinces. In the future, over 1870-1880. The competence of the depths gradually cut off, and the composition became more and more noble. But, despite the many flaws, the work of the scum contributed to the formation of civil consciousness, the solution of a part of local problems of education and health care. The city reform began to develop in 1861. Her project, submitted in 1864, was long discussed and reworked. On June 16, 1870, the "Garden Region" was approved, according to which the city may have created a city council (legislature) and the city government (the executive body) under the chairmanship of the urban head. The functions of the urban government were to care about the improvement of the city, trade protection, hospitals, schools, schools and urban taxation. Elections to the city duma were held in three electoral assembly based on property qualification. In the first selective meeting included only major taxpayers who made a third of urban taxes, in the second - smaller, who paid the other third, to the third - all the others. Each meeting elected representatives to the city Duma. City Duma were under the control of government officials. The urban head (elected by the City Duma for 4 years) was approved by the governor or the Minister of the Interior, they could suspend the decisions of the City Duma.

Judicial reform. On November 20, 1864, a judicial reform was carried out. It included the creation of new judicial charters that introduced general judicial institutions for individuals of all classes, with the general procedure for legal proceedings, publicity and competitiveness of proceedings, equal to the responsibility of all classes before the law, the independence of the court from the administration. The country was divided into 108 judicial districts. The new structure of the court included: the world court, where they disassemble criminal and civil cases, the damage for which did not exceed 500 rubles. The global judges were elected by county earth assembly, was approved by Senate; District Court, where serious civil lawsuits and criminal cases dealt with the participation of jurors. Senate was the highest judicial and appellate instance. The preliminary investigation was conducted by judicial performers. Entered the bar. This system was supplemented by the hail courts for peasants, consistory for the clergy, the court for the military, top officials, etc. The most important political crimes were under the jurisdiction of the Supreme Criminal Court, which was appointed with the emperor in exceptional cases. In 1863, the law was adopted, overhanging corporal punishments by sentences of ships. From corporal punishment, women were completely freed. However, rosies were preserved for the peasants (by sentences of volost vessels), for exile, religious and penal soldiers. Education and print reform It was conducted in 1863-1865. In 1863, a new university charter was published, providing universities wide freedom and self-government. In the summer of 1864, the "Charter of Gymnasiums and Progimazius" was introduced. The reform of public enlightenment proclaimed the principle of general and all-known education. In 1865, according to the print reform, the censorship was significantly mitigated, the Company provided the right to discuss political events. Military reform Began in 1857 with the liquidation of the system of military settlements and reduce the service life of the lower ranks (from 25 to 10 years). In the 60s. The control of the fleet and naval educational institutions was reorganized, and for 12 years, transformations were carried out in the army. In 1862, the martial management reform began. The country was divided into 15 military districts in order to more promptly leadership. Military ministry and main headquarters were reorganized. In 1864-1867 The number of the army decreased from 1132 thousand people. Up to 742 thousand while maintaining military potential. In 1865, a military-judicial reform began. In the 60s. For the operational transfer of troops, the railway was built to the Western and Southern borders of Russia, and in 1870 railway troops were created. New charters appeared in the army. During the reform of military schools, military gymnasiums and UNCERSK Schools for all classes with a biennium learning were organized. The training of the officer composition was improved. On January 1, 1874, "Charter on military service" was published, according to which the universal military service was introduced instead of the recruit set. Upon reaching 21 years, all men in the village had to carry a valid service. All this made it possible to create a rather strong, prepared army. Advanced reformation activity was interrupted on March 1, 1881 by the murder of Alexanderii as a result of a terrorist act.

Future king Alexander II.born on April 29 (April 17, in the old style) of 1818. From the very birth of the firstborn of the imperial couple Nikolai Pavlovich and Alexandra Fedorovna He was perceived as a potential throne, because the older brothers the king had no children. Therefore, special attention was paid to the education and education of the future emperor. The sacred history and the law of God taught him archpriest Gerasim Pavsky, arithmetic teach academician Collins, Military Basics - Colonel Karl Merder, and legislation - statesman Mikhail Speransky. The teacher of the Russian language and the chief mentor of Alexander Nikolayevich, who was responsible for his training and education, was a post-adviser, poet Vasily Zhukovsky.

The main direction internal politicians Russia during the reigns of Alexander II became liberal reforms that were called "Great". In the 1860-70s, financial, Zemskaya, judicial, censorship, military reforms, the reforms of the Middle and higher education, urban self-government. Currently the transformations of peasant reform. March 3 (February 19, on the old style) of 1861, the emperor signed two documents: "Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom" and "Regulations on peasants coming out of the fortress dependence." According to them, the peasants stopped considered to be serfs and received the status of "temporary obligated". They were empowered by a seam site and wildlife, for the use of which the peasants had to serve the barbecine or pay the lifts for 49 years.

Also named Alexander II, Alaska is associated: the peninsula sold by the Emperor of the United States of America in 1867. This remote ownership is expensive, it was also believed that in the event of war it would be difficult to defend. Nevertheless, with Alexander II, Russia significantly expanded the boundaries, it was attached to it Central Asia, North Caucasus, Far East and Bessarabia.

The personal life of the king was always heard from contemporaries. In his youth, he often fell in love with Court Freinin, with some had stormy novels. One of the ladies of the heart of Alexander was young queen VictoriaWith which he met during a trip to London 1839. In 1841, the twenty-one-year-old heir to the throne marked with the seventeen-year-old princess of the Hessian house, who received the name in Orthodoxy Maria Alexandrovna. Being in marriage, the emperor continued to raise intrigues, and by the end of 1870, and at all began to live on two families, especially this is not hiding. Princess Ekaterina Dolgorukova,the young lover of the king, together with their common excommunicable children lived in separate rest in the Winter Palace, next to the legal spouse Alexander II.

In July 1880, a few months after the death of Maria Alexandrovna, the emperor married Catherine. Wedding took place hastily until the end of the laid mourning. Alexander II wanted to crown his chief and make the heirs to the throne of their common children, but did not have time: their family happiness with a long-term launched less than a year. March 13 (March 1, on the old style) of 1881, the emperor died as a result of the next (sixth) attempt. The wound received from the bomb abandoned under his feet of the People Ignatiy Grinevitsky turned out to be fatal.

Emperor Alexander II. They know primarily as the "Tsar liberator", which has abolished serfdom. But do not forget that the sovereign reformer spent much more transformations.

Birth of the king of the liberator Alexander 2

Having committed the great deal of liberation of peasants and conducting a number of other reforms, Alexander II made the necessary steps towards turning Russia into a competitive state, designed to play one of the primary roles on the world scene. But at the same time, his reforms accelerated the process of revolutionary fermentation in Russian society, the victim of whom their Creator fell. Alexander 2.

In 1818, the last days before Easter and the Holy Week, the Imperial courtyard of Russia spent in Moscow. All members of the imperial family, with the exception of the emperor Alexander I, who was on the south of Russia, met Sunday's bright Christ in ancient walls.

15 years have passed happy and serene life Alexandra Nikolayevich Romanova After his marriage. The future emperor is young, healthy, "perfectly" in love with his spouse and uses reciprocity; One after another children are born; Father introduced him to the course of state cases - but the burden of autocracy responsibility was not yet on his shoulders. Everything moves along the track that Nikolai I is readable for Russia, and not to him, Alexander, has to make decisions that can serve or to glory, or to the death of the empire.

Alexander Nikolaevich leanned before the authority of the Father, until his perceptual death, February 18, 1855. Nikolay left his son a hard legacy. It was the Crimean War, and it was obvious that, despite the unprecedented courage of Russian soldiers, the Multi-month, Russia will defeat in it.

The technical backwardness of our army, the lack of weapons, organizations, a complete disorder of the financial system - all this could not be redeemed by the heroism of the Russian man. And on March 18, 1856 the signing of the Parisian peace treaty between Russia on the one hand and the "whole Europe" was associated with Ottoman Empire with another. The agreement was worth Russia of the Black Sea Fleet, but by the efforts of the genius of diplomacy A. M. Gorchakov - was not so humiliated as it would be possible to assume.

Nevertheless, the defeat in the Crimean War was an important lesson for Alexander II, pushing him to awareness of the need for a speedy reform.

Sasha Mitrahovich 14.02.2017 08:59

In the photo: "Announcement of Manifesta 1861" Kustodiev

Beginning of mine reform activity Emperor Alexander II put it before signing the Paris Treaty. In December 1855, he ordered to eliminate the highest censorship committee, discovering the era of publicity in the history of Russia. Society, discouraged and humiliated with what is happening in the current army, in dire need of at least to speak, believe URBI ET ORBI of his doubts and hopes. It received this opportunity - and immediately turned out to be provided with many independent prints of the most different sense.

Next, it was necessary to resolve the EASI's painful question - the peasant, thanks to which Russia remained somewhere on the "feudal backyards" of Europe. Apparently, the emperor feared to approach him. Back in March 1856, he assured the Moscow nobility that the "rumors" about the release of the peasants "unfair", although I tried with the caution of the soil, he often concerned such speeches:

"But I won't tell you that I was completely against it. We live in the century that over time it should happen. I think you are one opinion with me; Therefore, much better so that it happened more than below. "

Only in January 1861 the sovereign found enough effort in order to sell a bill on the abolition of serfs prepared by the relevant committee. He accepted him against the objections of the majority of members of the State Council. On February 19, Alexander II approved the final text of the law on the liberation of peasants and signed the highest manifesto, read out on March 5 after the dinner in all churches, from the Ambonov who sounded the word of the king:

"Autumn themselves with a procession, Orthodox people, and prize with us God blessings on your free work, a deposit of home well-being and public benefits."

It should be related: after many years, the dreams of "Will" the peasants received less than it would like to. However, given that in 1859, almost a third part of the nobility was expressed for the release of "Sivolapi" in no case, and another third suggested freeing them at all without land, it is necessary to recognize the benefactority and the vast importance of this "revolution from above".

Alexander II reforms:

1861 Peasant Reform.

Liberation of peasants from serf dependence with personal land and the possibility of redeeve the land at the landowner.

The peasants have gained personal freedom. True, the land of the former serfs did not automatically receive - they had to pay redemption payments within 49 years. Nevertheless, the reform gave impetus to development and agriculture, and industry - after all, the plants flowed a lot of those who became free Sellian.

The reform had a compromise and therefore did not satisfy the peasants, deafly speaking among themselves about the "Other will", which allegedly "promised the king, and the bar was taken away," neither the nobles who did not manage to market in the extension without the use of giving labor and rapidly Related.

1864 Zemskoy reform.

In 1864, the Local governments appeared - local governments in counties and provinces.

One of the greatest liberal reforms The Board of Alexander II was the creation of a new structure of local self-government in rural Russia - Zemstvo. Already on January 1, 1864, the provision on the provincial and county facilities was made public.

The creation of local authorities (provincial and county forest meetings and councils), elected, in a universal basis. It was called upon to promote the "initiative in the field", but also reached its goals partly.

Other duties for organs zemsky self-government In a number of Russian provinces, the most difficult task was entrusted - the arrangement and further development of the public health system.

1864 Judicial Reform.

A judicial reform was of great importance for Russia. Since 1864, the Court has been built on a permissive basis, the incrementability of judges, the independence of the court from the administration, was proclaimed. Introduction of all-class vessels, the establishment of public proceedings, the institution of the lawyer. Refers to the most radical reforms.

1870 Urban Reform.

"Urban version" of the Zemstvo reform. Creation of urban dums and management - Unlike zemstvo, they were inexplicitable.

1874 Military Reform.

Until 1874, a military reform stretched out, the result of which was the transition from the recruit set to the universal military service. Introduction of universal military service, reducing the valid service life of up to 5 (land forces) - 7 (fleet) years against the previous service life of 25 years. Pursued the goal to strengthen the defense capability of Russia.

1860-1870s Church and educational reforms

based on the results of which graduates of the spiritual seminaries received access to universities, the persecution of universities loyal to secular power ceased to the Old Believers, partial autonomy of universities was introduced, the first higher female courses (1869) were opened in Russia. The new university charter and school reform led to the democratization of all levels of education, and the print reform significantly weakened censorship.

Military reform of the 1860-1870s

A highly progressive and timely at the board of Alexander 2 was military reform of the 1860-1870s.

The lesson of the Crimean War I have not ended in the Russian war - "the British rifle is not bricks," was also learned and understandless. Reform and personnel structure, and organization, and technical equipment Russian army. The troops received new states - so, in peacetime, the highest tactical unit was now considered division (not an army or case, as before), and for ease of control, the entire territory of the state was divided into military districts - this system is used and understood. The commander of the district was obeyed by all troops, it was deployed. The districts provided quick mobilization of the army in case of war.

Also, the headquarters were also created during the reform, the headquarters were reduced almost half the number of an exorbitant army of the Nikolaev sample, a network of military schools and ships was created; bodily punishments were canceled; And although "especially fined" in some cases could still be punished by rods, but nightmarish spider and passages through the maintenance remained in the past. The army and the fleet were radically re-re-equipped: casnosnoscales appeared (that is, charged not from the blow, but from the government part) the guns and artillery guns, rapid guns on metal beams, outdated sailboats began to replace armor.

One of the remarkable achievements of the reform was the replacement of the recruitment set on the Universal Military Meament in 1874. Theoretically, all young people from 20 years have considered theoretically; Almost urged only the minimum number of recruits, about a quarter of the call. They did not recruit the only sons in the family and the only breadlords, they were released from the call, whose older brother was already served.

Terms of service are also significantly reduced: up to six years in the army plus nine years in stock. Benefits spread on educated: faces with primary education served four years, graduates of urban schools - three, gymnasiums - four. Higher education served only six months.

Sasha Mitrahovich 14.02.2017 09:14

Alas, modern Alexander. II society failed to give proper assessment to the accomplishment. The emperor was between the hammer and anvil. The reproaches poured on the part of the conservative nobility, which was used to relying the throne, and from the side of the new force - the wards for the people who read Fourier, Saint-Simon, Dobrolyubov and Chernyshevsky and the accuracy of God's kingdoms - on earth and without God.

Police measures, who kept the order in Russia under Nicolae I, remained in the past, and the educated class (the pretty part of it was already the differences) wandered. Testing loyal feelings for anointed anointed, and even more so to talk about them out loud and more indecently, Nomomilfo - not everywhere, of course, but in certain circles, rapidly, however, expanding. The intelligentsia rose to the path of denial of the monarchy, opposed himself to her: already in 1862 the first proclamations appear to overtake the autocracy and the land section.

At the same time, the national liberation movement on the north-western outskirts of the Empire was revived at the same time with Russian ferry processes. Some mitigation established at one time by Nikolai I in the kingdom of Polish orders was perceived by Polish patriots as a signal to action. In January 1863, an armed uprising began, to suppress which it was possible only with the use of the toughest measures. The situation has stabilized, but the rebel suppression also did not add popularity to Alexander II.

Sasha Mitrahovich 14.02.2017 09:36

Last years The rule of Alexander II was marked for the country of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-878, which caused a certain patriotic lift in society, which facilitated the situation of the Orthodox Slavic population of the Balkan and demonstrated the combat capability of our army, but nevertheless, according to the results of a peace treaty, not so victorious as Togo deserved the successes of Russian weapons. Why it happened - the topic for a separate conversation, which is not the hand here.

For the emperor Alexander II, from 1865 to 1881, became the time of painful disclaiming in the family and as painful happiness.

Empress Maria Alexandrovna, whose health was undermined by frequent clan and rotten Petersburg climate, slowly faded. Alexander regretted her, but languished beyond. In 1865, the untimely death of Zesarevich Nikolai, the beautiful young men, who suffered from the tuberculosis of the spine, inflicted the family of the emperor to the last blow. Ventance spouses were distant from each other. The novels of the sovereign, which happened before, was not a secret for anyone, but in 1865 he loved last love. His chosen, Princess, Ekaterina Dolgorukova, gave birth to him three children, and soon after the death of Mary Alexandrovna in 1880, without having won the deadline for mourning, the emperor married her.

Higher society took his act in the bayonets - but probably, Alexander premeditated ambulance, because since 1879, terrorists hunted him as on the beast, and sought to ensure the future of his morganotic wife and children.

On the way to the Constitution

On the morning of March 1, 1881, Alexander II ordered the convening of the Council of Ministers for the latest editing of the relevant government message. It was not yet parliament, not a constitution, but - a certain step towards that and the other.

Alexander II murder on the terrorist Grinevitsky on the Catherine Canal

After that, the sovereign went to the Manege for divorce, and then to the Mikhailovsky Palace to his cousin great Princess Catherine Mikhailovna. At the beginning of the third, he came out of her and sat down in the crew, Velle Kumor return to Winter. When Alexander drove through the Catherine Canal, an explosion rang out that heavily damaged the crew, wounded two convoy Cossacks and a random passerby. The emperor came out of the carriage and approached the wounded, despite the persuasion of approximately riding the palace. At that moment Ignatius Grinevitsky threw Alexander II second bomb under his feet.

The sovereign bleeding was taken to the Winter Palace, where he died, almost no coming into consciousness. The first semist of the Great Post was going. On the eve of the Slave of God, Alexander confessed and met the Holy Taine.

The need to perpetuate the destination place of the Tsar-Liberator arose in society immediately after the tragic events on March 1, 1881. Alexander III insisted that it should be a temple, not a chapel.

The step to the constitution was made and was not, on the Catherine Canal was laid.

On March 1, 1881, the bomb thrown by Ignatius Grinevitsky broke the life of Alexander II. People have led their "verdict" by execution. But folk unrest, which would move into the revolution (which the people hoped for), did not happen. On the contrary, for the most part, people were suppressed what happened.

Sasha Mitrahovich 14.02.2017 09:51

On March 3, 1855, Alexander II Nikolaevich entered the throne. In his first speech, before members of the Council, the new emperor said: "My unforgettable parent loved Russia and all his life was constantly thinking about only its benefits. In the permanent and daily works of him with me, he told me that I want to take everything unpleasant and everything was serious, just to give you Russia with it, happily and calm. Providence was judged differently, and the late sovereign, in the last hours of his life, I told me to give you my team, but unfortunately, not in such a manner, as I wished, leaving you a lot of works and worries. "

The first of the important steps was the end of the Bloody Crimean War of 1853-1856. Alexander II concluded the Paris Mirny Treaty in March 1856. When the external enemies stopped growing Russia, the emperor began to restore the country and began with reforms.

Great reforms Alexander II.

The abolition of military settlements in 1857.

IN early XIX. Century, in the era of wars with Napoleon, an offer arose to organize military settlements in the inner provinces in large sizes. This thought was put forward by Emperor Alexander I. He hoped that military settlements would replace reserve armies in Russia and would allow, if necessary, increase the number of troops in several times. Such settlements were given to the lower ranks to be able to stay among their families during the service and continue their agricultural classes, and to provide themselves with home and food.

But military settlements have long existed for long, bringing only losses of the treasury. After joining the throne of Emperor Alexander II, the Military settlements was sent to the Flygel Adjutant Dmitry Stolypin. Having traveled all settlements, Stolypin Donas the Emperor that the population of the districts heavily impoverished, many owners had no livestock, gardening had decayed, the construction of the districts required repair, and to ensure food troops, such a number of land was needed that the share of its own economy was left only uncomfortable areas. Both the local and the main authorities of military settlements came to be convinced that military settlements are unprofitable in material terms and do not reach the goal. In view of this, in 1857, military settlements and the districts of arable soldiers were abolished and transferred to the Office of the Ministry of Public Protection.

Cancellation of serfdom of 1861.

The first steps towards the restriction and further abolition of serfdom were made by Paul I in 1797 with the signing of the manifesto about the three-day Barechin, after Alexander I in 1803, with the signing of a decree of free blades, as well as Nikolai I, who continued the peasant politics of Alexander I.

The new government collected by Alexander II decided not only to continue this policy, but also to fully solve the peasant question. And on March 3, 1861, Alexander II has signed a manifesto on the abolition of serfdom and the provision on peasants emerging from the serfdom, consisting of 17 legislative acts.

• The peasants ceased to be considered serfs and began to be considered temporary obligated. The peasants received complete civil legal capacity in everything that did not apply to their special estate rights and duties - membership in the rural society and the ownership of the ruling earth.
• Peasant houses, buildings, all the movable property of the peasants was recognized by their personal property.
• The peasants received elected self-government, the lower economic unit of self-government was rural society, the highest administrative unit - the parish.
• The landowners retained the ownership of all those belonged to them, but they were obliged to provide the peasants to the peasants, and the field was put on. The land of the field put on the grounds were not personally provided to the peasants, but to the collective use of rural societies that could distribute them between the peasant farms at their discretion. The minimum size of the peasant naughty for each locality was established by law.
• For the use of a fallen earth, the peasants were supposed to serve the barbecia or pay the lifts and did not have the right to refuse her within 49 years.
• The dimensions of the field pouring and duties were to be recorded in the statutory certificates, which were compiled by landowners for each estate and were checked by world intermediaries.
• Rural societies were given the right to redeem the estate and by agreement with the landowner - Polevoy, after which all the obligations of the peasants stopped the landlord. The peasants who bought out put on, were called the lemars owners. The peasants could also refuse to redeem the right and get free from the landowner put on a quarter from the station, which they had the right to buy out. When endowed with free put on the temporary obligated condition also stopped.
• The state on preferential terms provided landowners financial guarantees for obtaining redemption payments by accepting them to pay themselves. Peasants, respectively, had to pay redemption payments to the state.

Many historians consider the reform of Alexander II incomplete and argue that she did not lead to the liberation of peasants, but only identified the mechanism of such liberation, and unfair. From the speech of the "populist" I.N. Myshkin: "The peasants saw that they were put on sand and swamps and some scattered blocks of the Earth, on which it is impossible to keep the economy when they saw that this was done with the permissation of state power when they saw that there was no such mysterious article of the law they assumed As guarding folk interests, they were convinced that they had nothing to count on the state power, that they could only count on themselves. "

"The liberation of the peasants (reading manifesta)." \u2060Boris Kustodiev. 1907

Financial reform.

Cancellation of serfdom created in Russia a new type of economy. Reforms began on May 22, 1862 with the introduction of "Rules on the preparation, review and execution of state painting and financial estimates of ministries and major departments." The first step was the introduction of the principle of publicity and the beginning of the publication state budget. In 1864-68, treasures were organized in the structure of the Ministry of Finance, administered all state revenues. In 1865, local financial self-government bodies were created - control chambers.

With the beginning of the reform, trade has changed. In order to eradicate corruption, the government decided to replace previously used fishing on excise stamps across alcohol and tobacco. Wine spill, income from which traditionally formed a lion's share of the budget was canceled. From now on, excise taxes could be obtained in special excise controls. The monetary reform of 1862 was postponed, since the state did not have enough gold and silver for the change of paper money. It was carried out only in 1895-97. Under the leadership of Sergey Witte.

Modernization was radically reorganized the state financial system, making it more open and more efficient. Strict accounting of the state budget set the economy to a new way of development, corruption decreased, the treasury was spent on important items and events, officials became more responsible for order of money. Thanks to the new system, the state could overcome the crisis and soften negative consequences peasant reform.

University reform.

In 1863, a university charter was adopted. New Tired provided universities more independence in the internal management affairs and expanded the possibilities of accounting for local conditions for its development, created more favorable conditions for scientific and learning activities, increased the attractiveness of teaching work at universities for young people and contributed to the approval in the future at university departments of a sufficient number of qualified teachers, and also provided for a number of special measures to stimulate students to develop sciences. The workshop of the academic district belonged only to monitor the legality of the actions of the University Council. Students who studied at the University did not have the right to a corporate device, unauthorized persons were not at all allowed to visit lectures.

Military reform.

In 1860-1870, military reform was carried out. The main provisions of the reforms were developed by the Military Minister D. A. Milyutin. The result of the reform was:

• reducing the number of army by 40%;
• creating a network of military and UNCERSK schools, where representatives of all classes were taken;
• improvement of the military management system, the introduction of military districts, the creation of a headquarters;
• creation of vowels and competent military courts, military prosecutor's office;
• cancellation of corporal punishments (except for rods for special "fined") in the army;
• re-equipment of the army and fleet (the adoption of rifled steel guns, new rifles, etc.), reconstruction of state-owned military factories;
• introduction of universal military service in 1874 instead of a recruit set and reduced service life. According to a new law, all young people who have reached 20 years are called, but the government defines the necessary number of recruits each year, and only this number takes from conscripts to the lot, although no more than 20-25% of conscripts were used to serve. The only son of the parents was not subject to the call, the only breadwinner in the family, and also if the elder brother of the recruit is serving or serving. The service taken to serve in it: in the ground forces of 15 years - 6 years in the ranks and 9 years in stock, in the fleet - 7 years of valid service and 3 years in stock. For those who received primary education The valid service period is reduced to the ages of 4, who have graduated from the city school - up to 3 years old, the gymnasium - up to one and a half years, and those who had a higher education - until six months.
• development and introduction of new military laws in the troops.

Urban reform was held. She served as a impetus for the trade and industrial development of cities, secured the system of urban public administration. One of the results of the reforms of Alexander II was the introduction of a society to civilian life. The basis for the new Russian political culture was laid.

As well as Judicial reformwhich comprehensively reformed ship management and legal proceedings, and Zemstvo reform, which provided for the creation of a local government system in rural areas - Zemstvo institutions.

Foreign policy.

In the reign of Alexander II there was an expansion Russian Empire. During this period, Central Asia were joined in Russia (in 1865-1881 in Russia, most of Turkestan entered into Russia), North Caucasus, Far East, Bessarabia, Batumi. Thanks to the prince Alexander Gorchakov, Russia restored its rights to the Black Sea, having achieved the abolition of the ban to keep his fleet there. The meaning of the accession of new territories, especially Central Asia, was incomprehensible to part of the Russian society. Saltykov-Shchedrin criticized the behavior of generals and officials who used the Central Asian War for personal enrichment, and M. N. Pokrovsky pointed out the meaninglessness of the conquest of Central Asia for Russia. These conquests wrapped in large human losses and material costs.

In 1867, Russian America (Alaska) was sold to the United States for 7.2 million dollars. In 1875, in St. Petersburg, a contract was concluded, on which Japan was transferred to all the Kuril Islands in exchange for Sakhalin. And Alaska and the Kuril Islands were distant iced possessions, unprofitable with economic point vision. In addition, they were difficult to defend. The concession for twenty years provided the neutrality of the United States and the Japanese empire in relation to Russia's actions on Far East And he made it possible to free the necessary forces to consolidate the territories more suitable for living.

In 1858, Russia concluded the Aigun Treaty with China, and in 1860, the Peking Agreement, which was obtained by the extensive territories of Transbaikalia, Khabarovsk Territory, a significant part of Manchuria, including Primorye (Ussuriy Territory).

The attempts and death of Alexander II.

Alexander II had several attempted. On April 16, 1866, the Russian revolutionary Karakozov was a completely first attempt. When Alexander II headed from the gate of the summer garden to his carriage, he was shot. The bullet flew over the head of the emperor, who shot the peasant Osip Commissioners standing nearby, who saved the life of the emperor.

On May 25, 1867, an attempt was made by the Polish emigrant Anton Berezovsky in Paris. The bullet pleased to the horse. April 14, 1879 in St. Petersburg. Russian revolutionary Solovyov made 5 shots from the revolver.

On December 1, 1879, an attempt was attempted to explode the imperial train near Moscow. Saved the emperor that the steam locomotive broke in Kharkov, who was half an hour before the royal. The king did not want to wait when they fix the broken locomotive and the royal train went first. Not knowing about this circumstance, terrorists missed the first composition, blowing up Ma under the fourth second car.

On February 17, 1880, Halturine was an explosion on the first floor of the Winter Palace. The emperor dined on the third floor, saved him that he arrived later than the appointed time, killed 11 people in the second floor.

On March 13, 1881, a deadly attempt occurred. The royal tuple turned from the engineering street to the embankment, heading towards theatrical bridge, Rysakov threw a bomb under the horses of the emperor. The explosion was injured and some people nearby were injured, but the emperor himself was not injured. A man who threw the shell was detained.

Life-Kucher Sergeyev, Rothmist Cullkin and Colonel Nerlaiski convinced the emperor as soon as possible to leave the place of attempt as soon as possible, but Alexander felt that Military dignity demanded to look at the wounded Circassians who were protected, and tell them a few words. After he approached the detained Rysakov and asked him about something, then he went back to the place of the explosion, and here the channel was standing at the grille and not noticed by the guard Grinevitsky threw the emperor to the emperor a bomb wrapped into a napkin.

The explosive wave dropped Alexander II to the ground, blood was whipped from crushed feet. The fallen emperor whispered: "Carry me to the palace ... there ... die ...". By order of the Grand Duke, Mikhail Nikolayevich, who arrived from the Mikhailovsky Palace of the Great Prince of the Emperor, was lucky in the Winter Palace.

The sovereign was made on their hands and put on the bed. Life Medic Botkin to the question of the heir, if the emperor will live for a long time, replied: "From 10 to 15 minutes." At 15 35 minutes, the imperial standard was launched on the flagpole of the Winter Palace, the imperial standard was launched, otoving the population of St. Petersburg on the death of Emperor Alexander II.

Emperor Alexander II on mortal app. Photo of S. Levitsky.

Emperor Alexander 2 accepted the country in a difficult period. Russia was drawn to the Crimean War and by 1855, when Alexander 2 began to rule the country, our country was practically in a hopeless position.

In subsequent years emperor Alexander 2. It was concentrated on the internal problems of the country, which in dire needed reforms. Alexander 2 has not once stated that Russia needs change and that internal and foreign politicians Must be aimed at meeting these purposes. Russia needed resolving relations with Asian countries, as well as in the exit of political isolation, in which there was a country as a result of defeat in the Crimean War. These complex tasks turned out to be solved largely due to the political talent A.M. Gorchakov.

Emperor Alexander 2 sent tremendous efforts to find allies in Europe. Leading European powers, which, after the Crimean War, formed an anti-Russian coalition, France, Austria and Prussia, had a lot of differences among themselves, led to wars. Russian diplomacy decided to choose a course for rapprochement with France. In February 1859, an agreement and cooperation between Russia and France was even signed. In April of the same year, France began a war with Austria, but Russia did not give her help. Relations with France were corrupted, but Austria was established.

In 1863-1864 In Poland, a major uprising broke out, which decided to take advantage of the ill-wishers of Russia. England and France tried to intervene in all their forces to "bring order in the barbaric Russia". But at this time, the emperor Alexander 2 went on rapprochement with Prussia, which in the roots changed the situation. In exchange for the neutrality of Prussia under the Polish uprising, Russia retained neutrality with Prussia wars with France in 1870-71, and Austria in 1866. During the same war, Prussia with France, in October 1870, Emperor Alexander 2 declared the world that Russia does not consider it necessary to fulfill the conditions of the Parisian peace treaty, according to which Russia was forbidden to have a fleet in the Black Sea. The reason for this is more than a weighty - other countries that have signed this treaty violated this item and actively sent their ships to the Black Sea. In response to this, the governments of Austria, Turkey and England were sent to Russia a protest. But the Russian emperor was unshakable. Russia began to restore his fleet on the Black Sea.

On February 19, 1861, Emperor Alexander 2 signed a decree that canceled serfdom in Russia.

The beginning of the reign of Alexander 2 marks the war for the Caucasus. It was a bloody war that was delayed, but by 1864 russian troops took all the Black Sea coast. Finally, the war for the Caucasus was completed on May 21, 1864, when the last Circassian tribe was broken.

At this time, Alaska was a boom of the influx of the American population, therefore, Russia had to send an increasing number of troops to that region. Contain Alaska became unprofitable. It was, expressing modern tongue, Dotary region. Emperor Alexander 2 together with the government, guided expensive content Alaska, as well as the need to establish work relations with the United States of America, decided to sell Alaska to Americans, who expressed an explicit interest in this. The sale of Alaska took place in 1867. The total amount of the transaction amounted to 7.2 million dollars.

Emperor Alexander 2, during his board managed to solve the task of restoring the country's international prestige, undermined by the defeat in the Crimean War. In addition, he managed to solve problems within the country. The Board of Alexander 2 continued until 1881. This year, the emperor was killed.