Social sciences and what he does. Social science is a science that studies the life of society comprehensively.

4. Nature and types of chemical bonds. covalent bond

Appendix. Spatial structure of molecules

Each molecule (for example, CO 2, H 2 O, NH 3) or molecular ion (for example, CO 3 2 -, H 3 O +, NH 4 +) has a certain qualitative and quantitative composition, as well as a structure (geometry). Molecule geometry formed by a fixed relative position atoms and values ​​of bond angles.

The bond angle is the angle between imaginary straight lines passing through the nuclei chemically bound atoms. You can also say that this is the angle between two bond lines that have a common atom.

A bond line is a line connecting the nuclei of two chemically bonded atoms.

Only in the case of diatomic molecules (H 2 , Cl 2 , etc.) the question of their geometry does not arise - they are always linear, i.e. the nuclei of atoms are located on one straight line. The structure of more complex molecules may resemble different geometric figures, For example:

• triatomic molecules and ions of the type AX 2 (H 2 O, CO 2, BeCl 2)

• four-atomic molecules and ions such as AX 3 (NH 3, BF 3, PCl 3, H 3 O +, SO 3) or A 4 (P 4, As 4)

• pentaatomic molecules and ions of the type AX 4 (CH 4, XeF 4, GeCl 4)

There are particles of a more complex structure (octahedron, trigonal bipyramid, flat regular hexagon). In addition, molecules and ions may have the shape of a distorted tetrahedron, an irregular triangle; in angular structure molecules, the values ​​of α can be different (90°, 109°, 120°).

The structure of molecules is reliably established experimentally using various physical methods. Various theoretical models have been developed to explain the reasons for the formation of a particular structure and to predict the geometry of molecules. The easiest to understand are the model of repulsion of valence electron pairs (the OVEP model) and the model of hybridization of valence atomic orbitals (the GVAO model).

The basis of all (including the two mentioned) theoretical models explaining the structure of molecules is the following statement: the stable state of a molecule (ion) corresponds to such a spatial arrangement of the nuclei of atoms, in which the mutual repulsion of the electrons of the valence layer will be minimal.

This takes into account the repulsion of electrons both participating in the formation of a chemical bond (bond electrons) and not participating (lone pairs of electrons). It is taken into account that the orbital of the bonding electron pair is compactly concentrated between two atoms and therefore occupies less space than the orbital of the lone pair of electrons. For this reason, the repulsive effect of a nonbonding (lone) pair of electrons and its effect on bond angles are more pronounced than those of a bonding pair.

OVEP model. This theory proceeds from the following main provisions (set out in a simplified way):

• the geometry of the molecule is determined only by σ-bonds (but not π-);
• the angles between the bonds depend on the number of lone pairs of electrons in the central atom.

These provisions should be considered jointly, since both chemical bond electrons and lone pairs of electrons repel each other, which ultimately leads to the formation of such a molecular structure in which this repulsion will be minimal.

Let us consider the geometry of some molecules and ions from the standpoint of the ECEP method; σ-bond electrons will be denoted by two dots (:), lone pairs of electrons - by a conventional symbol ( or ) or a dash.

Let's start with the five-atom methane CH 4 molecule. In this case, the central atom (this carbon) has completely exhausted its valence capabilities and does not contain lone pairs of valence electrons, i.e. all four valence electrons form four σ bonds. How should the σ-bond electrons be located relative to each other so that the repulsion between them is minimal? Obviously, at an angle of 109 °, i.e. along lines directed to the vertices of an imaginary tetrahedron, in the center of which is a carbon atom. In this case, the electrons involved in bond formation are as far apart as possible (for a square configuration, the distance between these bond electrons is greater and the interelectron repulsion is smaller). For this reason, the methane molecule, as well as the CCl 4, CBr 4, CF 4 molecules, have the shape of a regular tetrahedron (they are said to have a tetrahedral structure):

The ammonium cation NH + 4 and the anion BF 4 − have the same structure, since the nitrogen and boron atoms form four σ-bonds each, and they do not have lone pairs of electrons.

Consider the structure of the four-atomic ammonia NH 3 molecule. In the ammonia molecule, there are three pairs of bonding electrons and one lone pair of electrons at the nitrogen atom, i.e. also four pairs of electrons. However, will the bond angle remain at 109°? No, since the lone pair of electrons, which occupies a larger volume in space, has a strong repulsive effect on the σ-bond electrons, which leads to some decrease in the bond angle, in this case this angle is approximately 107°. The ammonia molecule has the shape of a trigonal pyramid (pyramidal structure):

The tetraatomic hydroxonium ion H 3 O + also has a pyramidal structure: the oxygen atom forms three σ-bonds and contains one lone pair of electrons.

In the four-atom BF 3 molecule, the number of σ-bonds is also three, but the boron atom has no lone pairs of electrons. Obviously, the interelectronic repulsion will be minimal if the BF 3 molecule has the shape of a regular flat triangle with a bond angle of 120°:

The molecules BCl 3 , BH 3 , AlH 3 , AlF 3 , AlCl 3 , SO 3 have the same structure and for the same reasons.

What is the structure of a water molecule?

There are four pairs of electrons in a triatomic water molecule, but only two of them are σ-bond electrons, the remaining two are lone pairs of electrons of the oxygen atom. The repulsive effect of two lone pairs of electrons in an H 2 O molecule is stronger than in an ammonia molecule with one lone pair, therefore the H–O–H bond angle is smaller than the H–N–H angle in an ammonia molecule: in a water molecule, the bond angle is approximately 105 ° :

The CO 2 molecule (O=C=O) also has two pairs of bonding electrons (we consider only σ-bonds), but unlike the water molecule, the carbon atom has no lone pairs of electrons. Obviously, the repulsion between pairs of electrons in this case will be minimal if they are located at an angle of 180°, i.e. with a linear form of a CO 2 molecule:

Molecules BeH 2 , BeF 2 , BeCl 2 have a similar structure and for the same reasons. In a triatomic SO 2 molecule, the central atom (sulfur atom) also forms two σ-bonds, but has an unshared pair of electrons, therefore, the sulfur (IV) oxide molecule has an angular structure, but the bond angle in it is larger than in the water molecule (the oxygen atom two lone pairs of electrons, while the sulfur atom has only one):

Some triatomic molecules of ABC composition also have a linear structure (for example, H–C≡N, Br–C≡N, S=C=Te, S=C=O), in which the central atom does not have unshared pairs of electrons. But the HClO molecule has an angular structure (α ≈ 103°), since the central atom, the oxygen atom, contains two lone pairs of electrons.

Using the OVEP model, one can also predict the structure of molecules organic matter. For example, in a C 2 H 2 acetylene molecule, each carbon atom forms two σ-bonds, and carbon atoms do not have lone pairs of electrons; therefore, the molecule has a linear structure H–C≡C–H.

In the C 2 H 4 ethene molecule, each carbon atom forms three σ-bonds, which, in the absence of lone pairs of electrons at carbon atoms, leads to a triangular arrangement of atoms around each carbon atom:

In table. 4.2 summarizes some data on the structure of molecules and ions.

Table 4.2

Relationship between the structure of molecules (ions) and the number σ -bonds and lone pairs of electrons of the central atom

Type of molecule (ion)	Number of σ-bonds formed by the central atom	Number of lone pairs of electrons	Structure, bond angle	Particle examples (central atom highlighted)
AB 2	2	0	Linear, α = 180°	C O 2, Be H 2, HC N, Be Cl 2, C 2 H 2, N 2 O, C S 2
		1	Angle, 90°< α < 120°	SnCl 2, S O 2, N O 2 -
		2	Angular, α< 109°	H 2 O , O F 2 , H 2 S , H 2 Se , S F 2 , Xe O 2 , −
AB 3	3	0	Triangular, α ≈ 120°	B F 3 , B H 3 , B Cl 3 , Al F 3 , S O 3 , C O 3 2 − , N O 3 −
		1	Trigonal pyramid, α< 109°	N H 3 , H 3 O + , N F 3 , S O 3 2 − , P F 3 , P Cl 3 , As H 3
AB 4	4	0	Tetrahedron, α = 109°	N H 4 + , C H 4 , Si H 4 , B F 4 , B H 4 − , S O 4 2 − , A l H 4 −

Note. In recording general formula molecules (ions) A is the central atom, B is the terminal atoms.

GUAO model. The main position of this model is that not "pure" valence s -, p - and d - orbitals participate in the formation of covalent bonds, but the so-called hybrid orbitals. Further, hybridization is considered only with the participation of 2p - and 2s -AO.

Hybridization is the phenomenon of mixing valence orbitals, as a result of which they are aligned in shape and energy.

The concept of hybridization is always used when electrons of different energy sublevels are involved in the formation of chemical bonds, not very different in energy: 2s and 2p, 4s, 4p and 3d, etc.

The hybrid orbital is not similar in shape to the original 2p- and 2s-AO. It has the shape of an irregular volume eight:

As can be seen, hybrid AOs are more elongated, so they can overlap better and form stronger covalent bonds. When hybrid orbitals overlap, only σ bonds are formed; in the formation of π bonds due to its specific shape hybrid AOs are not involved (π-bonds form only non-hybrid AOs). The number of hybrid orbitals is always equal to the number of initial AO participating in hybridization. Hybrid orbitals should be oriented in space so that their maximum distance from each other is ensured. In this case, the repulsion of the electrons located on them (bonding and non-bonding) will be minimal; the energy of the entire molecule will also be minimal.

The HLAO model assumes that orbitals with close energy values ​​(i.e., valence orbitals) and sufficiently high electron density participate in hybridization. The electron density of an orbital decreases with an increase in its size; therefore, the role in hybridization is especially significant for molecules of elements of small periods.

It should be remembered that HLAO is not a real physical phenomenon, but a convenient concept ( mathematical model), which allows describing the structure of some molecules. The formation of hybrid AO is not fixed by any physical methods. Nevertheless, the theory of hybridization has some physical justification.

Consider the structure of the methane molecule. It is known that the СН4 molecule has the shape of a regular tetrahedron with a carbon atom in the center; all four С–Н bonds are formed by the exchange mechanism and have the same energy and length, i.e. are equivalent. It is quite simple to explain the presence of four unpaired electrons in a carbon atom, assuming its transition to an excited state:

However, this process does not explain the equivalence of all four C–H bonds, since, according to the above scheme, three of them are formed with the participation of the 2p-AO of the carbon atom, one is formed with the participation of the 2s-AO, and the shape and energy of 2p- and 2s-AO are different.

To explain this and other similar facts, L. Pauling developed the concept of GVAO. It is assumed that the mixing of orbitals occurs at the moment of formation of chemical bonds. This process requires the expenditure of energy for electron pairing, which, however, is compensated by the release of energy during the formation of stronger (compared to non-hybrid) bonds by hybrid AOs.

Several types of hybridization are distinguished based on the nature and number of AOs involved in hybridization.

In the case of sp 3 hybridization, one s and three p orbitals are mixed (hence the name of the type of hybridization). For a carbon atom, the process can be represented as follows:

1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p x 1 2 p y 1 → electron transition 1 s 2 2 s 1 2 p x 1 2 p y 1 2 p z 1 → hybridization 1 s 2 2 (s p 3) 4

or using electronic configurations:

Four sp 3 -hybrid AOs are intermediate in energy between 2p - and 2s -AO.

The scheme of sp 3 hybridization can be represented using images of the shape of the AO of the carbon atom:

Thus, as a result of sp 3 hybridization, four hybrid orbitals are formed, each of which contains an unpaired electron. These orbitals in space are located at an angle of 109°28', which ensures minimal repulsion of the electrons located on them. If you connect the vertices of hybrid orbitals, you get a three-dimensional figure - a tetrahedron. For this reason, molecules of the composition АХ 4 (CH 4 , SiH 4 , CCl 4 , etc.), in which this type of hybridization occurs, have the form of a tetrahedron.

The concept of sp 3 hybridization of AO also explains well the structure of H 2 O and NH 3 molecules. It is assumed that 2s and 2p AOs of nitrogen and oxygen atoms are involved in hybridization. In these atoms, the number of valence electrons (5 and 6, respectively) exceeds the number of sp 3 -hybrid AOs (4), therefore, some of the hybrid AOs contain unpaired electrons, and some contain lone pairs of electrons:

We see that in the nitrogen atom, the lone pair of electrons is located on one hybrid AO, and in the oxygen atom, on two. Only AOs with unpaired electrons are involved in the formation of bonds with hydrogen atoms, and lone pairs of electrons will have a repulsive effect (Fig. 4.5) on each other (in the case of oxygen) and on bonding electrons (for oxygen and nitrogen).

Rice. 4.5. Scheme of the repulsive action of bonding and non-bonding orbitals in the molecule of ammonia (a) and water (b)

Stronger repulsion is expressed in the case of a water molecule. Since the oxygen atom has two lone pairs of electrons, the deviation from the ideal value of the bond angle for this type of hybridization (109°28 ′) in a water molecule is greater than in an ammonia molecule (in H 2 O and NH 3 molecules, the bond angle is 104, respectively ,5° and 107°).

The sp 3 hybridization model is used to explain the structure of diamond, silicon, NH 4 + and H 3 O + ions, alkanes, cycloalkanes, etc. In the case of carbon, this type of hybridization is always used when an atom of this element forms only σ-bonds.

In the case of sp 2 hybridization, one s and two p orbitals are mixed. Let us consider this type of hybridization using the example of a boron atom. The process is represented by energy diagrams

Thus, as a result of the sp 2 hybridization of the valence orbitals of the boron atom, three hybrid AOs are formed, directed at an angle of 120°, and one of the 2p orbitals does not take part in hybridization. Hybrid orbitals contain one unpaired electron each, are located in the same plane, and if you connect their vertices, you get a regular triangle. For this reason, molecules of the composition АХ 3 with sp 2 hybridization of the orbitals of the A atom have a triangular structure, as shown for the BF 3 molecule:

The nonhybrid 2p AO of the boron atom is free (not occupied) and is oriented perpendicular to the B–F bond plane; therefore, the BF3 molecule is an electron acceptor in the formation of a covalent bond by the donor–acceptor mechanism upon interaction with an ammonia molecule.

The concept of sp 2 hybridization is used to explain the nature of the carbon-carbon double bond in alkenes, the structure of benzene and graphite, i.e. in cases where the carbon atom forms three σ- and one π-bond.

The spatial arrangement of the carbon atom orbitals for sp 2 hybridization looks like this: the non-hybrid 2p-AO is oriented perpendicular to the plane in which the hybrid orbitals are located (both hybrid and non-hybrid AO contain an unpaired electron).

Consider the formation of chemical bonds in the ethylene molecule H 2 C=CH 2 . In it, hybrid AOs overlap with each other and with the 1s-AO of the hydrogen atom, forming five σ-bonds: one C–C and four C–H. Non-hybrid 2p-AOs overlap sideways and form a π-bond between carbon atoms (Fig. 4.6).

Rice. 4.6. Scheme of the formation of σ-bonds (a) and π-bonds (b) in an ethylene molecule

In the case of sp hybridization, one s and one p orbital are mixed. Let us consider this type of hybridization using the example of a beryllium atom. Let's imagine the hybridization process using the energy scheme:

and with the image of the shape of the orbitals

Thus, as a result of sp hybridization, two hybrid AOs containing one unpaired electron each are formed. Two 2p-AOs do not take part in hybridization and remain vacant in the case of beryllium. Hybrid orbitals are oriented at an angle of 180 °, therefore, molecules of the type AX 2 with sp hybridization of the orbitals of the atom A have a linear structure (Fig. 4.7).

Rice. 4.7. Spatial structure of the BeCl 2 molecule

Using the sp hybridization model of the carbon atom orbitals, the nature of the triple bond in alkyne molecules is explained. In this case, two hybrid and two non-hybrid 2p-AOs (shown by horizontal arrows →, ←) contain an unpaired electron each:

In the acetylene molecule HC≡CH, σ-bonds C–H and C–C are formed due to hybrid AOs:

Hybrid 2p-AO overlap in two perpendicular planes and form two π-bonds between carbon atoms (Fig. 4.8).

Rice. 4.8. Schematic representation of π-bonds (a) and planes of π-bonds (b) in an acetylene molecule (the wavy line shows the lateral overlap of the 2p-AO of the carbon atom)

The concept of sp hybridization of carbon atom orbitals makes it possible to explain the formation of chemical bonds in carbyne, CO and CO 2 molecules, propadiene (CH 2 =C=CH 2), i.e. in all cases where the carbon atom forms two σ- and two π-bonds.

The main characteristics of the types of hybridization considered and the geometric configurations of molecules corresponding to certain types of hybridization of the orbitals of the central atom A (taking into account the influence of nonbonding electron pairs) are presented in Table 1. 4.3 and 4.4.

Table 4.3

Main characteristics different types hybridization

Comparing the data in Table. 4.2 and 4.4, we can conclude that both models - OVEP and HLAO - lead to the same results regarding the structure of molecules.

Table 4.4

Types of spatial configuration of molecules corresponding to certain types of hybridization

USE. The structure of matter (types of chemical bond, types of crystal lattices, oxidation state)
Types of chemical bond

The lesson is devoted to solving problems from the Unified State Examination on the topic "Structure of matter (types of chemical bonds, types of crystal lattices, oxidation states)". Lesson objectives: to learn to compare the types of crystal lattices with the properties of matter. According to the type of chemical bond, predict the types of the crystal lattice of a substance. Check understanding of the concepts: oxidation state and valency.

Question	A comment
A1. Complex substances are called: 1. compounds formed by different substances 2. compounds formed by different chemical elements 3. compounds having a constant composition 4. compounds having a variable composition	A simple substance is a compound formed by the atoms of one chemical element, a complex substance formed by atoms of various chemical elements. Correct answer 2.
A2. The highest melting point has a substance whose formula is:	You need to know which crystal lattices these substances have: CH 4 - molecular, SiO 2 - atomic, Sn - metallic, KF -ionic. Substances with an atomic crystal lattice are characterized by the highest melting point. Correct answer 2.
A3. Substances of the molecular structure are all substances of the series: 1. sulfur, table salt, sugar 2. sugar, salt, glycine 3. sugar, glycine, blue vitriol 4. sulfur, glycerin, sugar	Sulfur, sugar, glycine, glycerin are substances of a molecular structure. Salt and copper sulfate have an ionic crystal lattice. These are substances of non-molecular structure. Correct answer 4.
A4. Molecular substances include: 2. C 6 H 12 O 6 4. C 2 H 5 ONa	We analyze: what type of crystal lattices these substances belong to. CaO, KF, C 2 H 5 ONa have an ionic crystal lattice. C 6 H 12 O 6 - molecular. Correct answer 2.
A5. Of the listed substances, the non-molecular structure has:	If a substance contains several atoms (I 2), then this substance has a molecular structure. Correct answer 3.
A6. Chemical bond in potassium bromide: 1. covalent non-polar 2. covalent polar 3. metal	Potassium bromide (KBr) is a typical salt formed by atoms that differ sharply in electronegativity. The bond is ionic. Correct answer 4.
A7. What bond occurs between the atoms of chemical elements with serial numbers 8 and 16? 2. covalent polar 3. covalent non-polar 4. hydrogen	These are S and O. These are non-metals. Their electronegativity is close. So the bond is covalent polar. Correct answer 2.
A8. A bond in a compound formed between a hydrogen atom and an element having an electronic configuration2 , 8 , 6 is an: 2. covalent polar 3. covalent non-polar 4. metal	We find the element by the distribution of electrons in the atom. Their sum is equal to the number of protons, the serial number. This is number 1 - S. They form H 2 S between themselves. Both are non-metals, with a small difference in electronegativity. Correct answer 2.
A9. In covalent hydrogen compounds of NE composition, the number of common electron pairs is:	The hydrogen atom has only one electron, therefore, when interacting with other atoms, it can form only one common electron pair. Correct answer 1.
A10. One of the bonds in the ammonium ion is formed: 1. according to the donor-acceptor mechanism 2. electrostatic attraction of nitrogen and hydrogen ions 3. socialization of nitrogen and hydrogen ions 4. due to the exchange of electrons	There are 4 covalent bonds in the ammonium ion. Three of them are formed according to the exchange mechanism, one - according to the donor-acceptor mechanism. Correct answer 1.
A11. The oxidation state of phosphorus in the compoundH 3 PO 4 is equal to:	The sum of the oxidation states, taking into account the number of atoms, should be equal to 0. H +, O -2, therefore P +5. Correct answer 4.
A 12. The atom of the element has a constant oxidation state:	Since the elements I-A groups have one valence electron, they can only exhibit one oxidation state +1. Correct answer 4.
A13. Graphite crystal lattice: 1. atomic 2. molecular 4. metal	Graphite is formed by carbon - a non-metal. This means that the crystal lattice cannot be ionic, metallic or molecular. Correct answer 1.
A14. At the nodes of the crystal lattices of substances of a molecular structure are: 1. Molecules 3. Atoms and ions 4. Molecules and ions	Molecules are located at the nodes of the crystal lattices of substances of a molecular structure. Correct answer 1.
A15. Of the substances below, the atomic crystal lattice has: 3. Naphthalene	Magnesium is a metal. It has a metallic crystal lattice. Sulfur, naphthalene - molecular crystal lattice. Correct answer 4.
A16. For substances with a metallic crystal lattice, an uncharacteristic property is: 1. Electrical conductivity 2. Thermal conductivity 3. Fragility 4. Plasticity	Metals are characterized by such properties: electrical and thermal conductivity, ductility, metallic luster. Brittleness is a property that is the opposite of plasticity, which means that metals cannot possess it. Correct answer 3.

The lesson considered solving problems from the Unified State Examination on the topic "Structure of matter (types of chemical bonds, types of crystal lattices, oxidation states)". We learned to compare the types of crystal lattices with the properties of matter. According to the type of chemical bond, predict the types of the crystal lattice of a substance. The understanding of the concepts was checked: oxidation state and valency.

Bibliography

1. Rudzitis G.E. Chemistry. Basics general chemistry. Grade 11: textbook for educational institutions: a basic level of/ G. E. Rudzitis, F.G. Feldman. - 14th edition. - M.: Education, 2012.
2. Popel P.P. Chemistry: Grade 11: a textbook for general education educational institutions/ P.P. Popel, L.S. Krivlya. - K .: Information Center "Academy", 2008. - 240 p.: ill.
3. Educational and training materials to prepare for the unified state exam. Chemistry/Kaverina A.A., Dobrotin D.Yu., Medvedev Yu.N., Koroshchenko A.S. - M.: Intellect-Centre, 2011.

1. Interneturok.ru ().
2. Ege.edu.ru ().
3. Chemport.ru ().
4. Himik.ru ().

Homework

1. Nos. 11-33 (p. 23) Rudzitis G.E. Chemistry. Fundamentals of General Chemistry. Grade 11: textbook for educational institutions: basic level / G. E. Rudzitis, F.G. Feldman. - 14th edition. - M.: Education, 2012.
2. With the complete oxidation of 2 g of a simple substance, 18 g of an oxide of composition E 2 O is formed. Find the molar mass of a simple substance.
3. Determine the valency and oxidation state of carbon in compounds: C 2 H 5 OH, CH 3 COOH.

Society is an incredibly interesting subject to study, as understanding the features of its functioning helps ordinary people significantly improve your life and make a positive impact on the world. To begin to consider society as a historically and culturally established phenomenon, it is necessary to understand what sciences study society. And in order to get an answer to this question, it is necessary to turn to such a complex of sciences as social science, which includes at least six basic scientific disciplines.

This is all that is usually studied in universities: philosophy, social Psychology, political science, economics, law, and sociology. All from one side or the other. Here are the representatives of socionomic professions (associated with people) which sciences they study! Social science is a large-scale discipline, the purpose of which is not to consider individual social phenomena, but as a whole, from the standpoint of different sciences.

But at the same time, it is important to understand that the study of aspects of the life of society in this kind will be superficial, since many of them, upon closer examination, turn out to be contradictory. But general education with the help of studying social science, you can get, and then hit poorly educated people with your erudition. Moreover, this discipline allows you to know the direction of the search for an answer to the question of what sciences study society.

What is the specificity of the knowledge of social phenomena

In general, the features of human cognition of the surrounding world are always the same. But when studying a particular object (which is society in our case), there are a number of features that should be taken into account that will help or, perhaps, hinder going deeper into any topic considered by science. And therefore it is important to understand the specifics of the cognition of social phenomena, which lies in the fact that the object and subject of study are one.

After all, everything is provoked by people who can influence them even by the very fact of studying these events and properties. For example, a failed experiment shook the public so strongly that the conditions for confirming a hypothesis or refuting it disappeared completely. The problem of studying social phenomena is that no matter what sciences study society, the personal factor works. Consequently, it is difficult for an object to reliably look at many phenomena. And such subjectivity does not allow to put everything into a whole picture, even within the framework of one science. And as for social science as a complex of disciplines, even more so. That is personal experience, the worldview of the researcher significantly affects the results of the experiments, which distorts the objective reality.

Philosophy

What sciences study society and man? One of them is philosophy, which considers the universal laws of the development of the world as integrity. There are other definitions as well. So, philosophy is called a special world, studying the most general properties and phenomena of the surrounding reality. Modern researchers do not like to call philosophy a science, since it often contains completely contradictory other positions that researchers do not even try to reconcile or figure out which one is correct. Just as in physics they try to reconcile the general theory of relativity with quantum field theory with varying degrees of success.

But within the framework of philosophy, both atheistic materialism and agnostic idealism can exist simultaneously. That is, philosophy can be called the answer to the question "what sciences study society" only conditionally. This form of knowledge of the world raises such questions.

• Do we know the world? Those who consider it possible to consider the whole of reality in its entirety are called Gnostics. And those who deny are agnostics.
• What is truth? Here the philosophy approached quite scientifically. So, full-fledged ones were developed within the framework of epistemology - the science of knowledge.
• What is good? This question is directly related to human values, therefore, it refers to such as axiology.

In general, philosophy is an excellent discipline, but in answer to the question "what sciences study society" there are others. They should also be considered.

Sociology

What sciences study society, man, social relations and institutions? That's right, disciplines related to sociology. These include not only the science considered in this subsection, but also, for example, social work. But sociology is the science of society, social institutions (historically established forms of its self-regulation), which aims to explain and predict certain social phenomena.

Jurisprudence

One aspect of the study of most of the socionomic sciences (studying society) is the system of social norms. They are religious, moral, group. And there is a special category of them - legal norms, which are a means of expressing the will of the state. Actually, jurisprudence is the science that studies legal norms, the features of their functioning in relation to a separate state or as a whole. The closest connection this discipline has with social psychology, social work and sociology.

Economy

Economics is the science that studies economic activity society, relations connected with money and property, production, distribution, exchange and consumption. This discipline is a mechanism that regulates the material side of the life of each member of society.

Political science

Political science is the science of a special form of human activity associated with power relations, as well as possible political systems, institutions and norms. This science also studies the relationship between the state and its individual citizens.

The term "" comes from the Latin word "societas" (community, group) and the Greek "logos" (word, doctrine) and therefore means "the science of communities." For the first time this term was used (1798-1857), by the largest French scientist, in his work "Course of Positive Philosophy" (1842). The philosophy of that time was greatly influenced by the successes of the natural sciences, and therefore Comte considered the problems of society and social behavior by analogy with physics, trying to use the knowledge gained about society primarily to solve specific problems of human relations.

By the middle of the XIX century. there was a clear trend towards differentiation of sciences, including social sciences. how science has become a reflection of the real need for a deeper understanding and analysis of the role and place of man in society, his social position, interaction with other people, as well as the relationship of various social communities. Sociology quickly entered the scientific life, and sociologists began to study more and more difficult questions characterizing the behavior of a person, his attitude and reaction to the processes taking place in society. V early XXI v. sociology has established itself as an independent, well-developed and vital discipline among the social sciences.

One of the greatest sociologists of the 20th century R. Merton once said: “ Sociology is a very young science of very ancient subject study". Really, theoretical basis sociology is a philosophy in which sociological problems were solved for 2.5 thousand years, while in the XIX century. did not stand out as an independent science. History, ethics, and legal science have had and continue to have a great influence on sociology. At the same time, the subject area of ​​sociology overlaps with the economic sciences in some respects. It should be noted the close connection of sociology with social psychology, which also studies the behavior and activities of people. Sociology is interested in the results of research by anthropologists, ethnographers, ethnologists, and culturologists. In addition, strong relationships have developed in sociology with precise and natural sciences primarily with mathematics and statistics.

Today, sociology is an independent science and academic discipline, which has its own object and subject of research, its own functions, research methods. And it rightfully occupies a worthy place in the system of scientific knowledge.

Sociology as a science

Modern man often encounters such terms as "sociology", "survey", "opinion", "social status", etc. Correspondents of radio, newspapers, television and news sites constantly report to him the results of surveys of the population on a variety of problems. Sociological services of the president, parliament, and various research centers study public opinion, in particular, the rating of the most influential people in the state, pricing policy problems, satisfaction with living standards, the population's attitude to the dollar exchange rate, etc. Sociological surveys are carried out in the cities of the country in order to find out the opinion about the work of transport and the service sector, to determine the level of social tension, etc. All these searches have created the image of sociology as an applied empirical science that serves to meet the current, momentary needs of society. However, this is only an external level of research, which does not exhaust the field of sociological knowledge.

To understand the specifics of any science helps to highlight its object and subject. It is known from the course of philosophy that object any science is that part, side of reality, which is studied by this science. Subject sciences are the most meaningful properties, features of the object that are subject to direct study.

In the most general sense is society. In this respect, the object of sociology coincides with the object of other social sciences - social philosophy, social psychology, history, political science, cultural studies, etc.

Let us note that in practically all sociological studies, society appears in its special form, as civil society. Sociology arises against the backdrop of the formation of civil society in Europe, positions itself as a way of describing and understanding just such a society, and only in civil society can it be truly in demand and effective. Thus, in determining the main object of study, modern civil society to a large extent characterizes the specifics of sociology as a science.

Immature forms of civil society existed at all stages of history, however, as an independent phenomenon, it was formed at a time when a person in real life began to demonstrate fundamentally new features of his way of life, behavior, namely in the 18th century, when the concepts of "state" and "society" were demarcated. Historically, this was associated with the process of formation and development of bourgeois society, in which people got more opportunities to act as an independent social force.

is a set of organized, historically established forms of joint life activity, developed universal and group values ​​and interests that guide people and every person in their public and privacy. In civil society:

• state and public organizations are equal and bear mutual responsibility for their actions;
• private life is separated from public life and removed from the control of the state;
• the rights and freedoms of the individual are guaranteed and protected by law;
• self-government opportunities are constantly expanding;
• the interests of all stakeholders are in a state of constant coordination.

In Russia, elements of civil society began to emerge at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. However, in the 1930s-1950s, under the conditions totalitarian regime the formation of civil society was interrupted, and with it the development of sociology in the country also ceased. Only with the "thaw" of the early 1960s. a gradual revival of domestic sociology began, and it received especially rapid development in the last decade of the 20th century. and in the first decade of the 21st century, when many original and translated monographs appeared on various problems of sociology, textbooks and teaching aids.

Thus, we can state the impact of the trends in the development of civil society on the researchers themselves.

From the point of view of many researchers, the object of sociology is not just society, but a combination of social properties, connections and relationships. This highlights the following specific traits, which are specific social:

• social expresses the mutual position individuals. This means that the character and relations between individuals and their groups depend on the place they occupy in the structures of society and the role they play;
• social is common property inherent in different groups of individuals;
• social manifests itself in relations individuals and groups to each other, to the phenomena and processes of social life;
• social is the result of joint activities individuals that manifest themselves in society.

It can be said that the social is always associated with the phenomena of interaction between people and their multilateral and multifaceted relations, which constitute social life.

Thus, the most general object of sociology as a science is society, which historically acts as a civil society, and structurally - as a set of social properties, connections and relationships.

Are the most significant properties and features of the object. In this regard, it has a number of important characteristics:

First (and most importantly), sociology studies specific social processes - the structure of society, distribution relations, the status of a person, his interaction with other people and groups, his way of life; secondly, sociology is engaged in the study of processes occurring not only in the social, but also in economic life characterizing work, its conditions, organization and stimulation, problems of labor collectives, problems of regions, ecological and demographic situation; thirdly, sociology explores the essence political processes and phenomena related to the development of democracy, problems of power, participation of voters in management, activities of public organizations;

fourthly, sociology studies the life of society and the subject sociological research become problems of education, culture, science, literature, art, religion, morality, law.

Consequently, the subject of sociology is not limited to the study of a narrow social sphere, and the area of ​​its interests includes a lot of problems related to the existence of a person, social groups, strata and communities, institutions and processes. The focus of sociology is integrity, the systemic nature of the social organism. At the same time, in the course of studying social phenomena and processes, sociologists focus on man with his interests and relationships and, in particular, study his reaction to social changes. However, in this case, a person acts not so much as an individual, but as a member of a certain community - a group, layer, class, etc. Human behavior (individual and group) is necessarily analyzed in a real socio-economic situation, in specific relationships, within the framework of various socio-demographic, national, professional structures. In this respect, the subject of sociology is different from the subject of other social sciences.

Note that the subject of sociology is not historically stable: like the process of social cognition itself, it is ambiguous, paradoxical and is in constant development and movement. In classical sociology, the subject matter was the integrity of the social organism, later sociology focused on social communities, social activities, human behavior, real social consciousness, and also social laws - stable, significant, recurring connections and relationships between phenomena identified by sociologists in the study of society and social relations on the basis of data (facts) from real world and their scientific explanation. These laws determine the collective behavior of people and are objective, i.e. do not depend on the consciousness and will of these people. They operate in all spheres of society, but differ in the extent of their distribution: some laws operate only in small groups and do not operate in large ones, others apply to the whole society, and still others - only to its individual areas.

All social laws have the following common features:

• the law comes into force only under certain conditions, but under these conditions it acts always and everywhere without any exceptions;
• the conditions under which the law operates are not fully implemented, but partially and approximately, much depends on the people themselves, on their motivation and actions.

For sociologists, the selection of the main features of all laws without exception is very important. Analyzing the content of any law, the researcher should, if possible, discover the conditions and scope of its operation. Therefore, a statement like "individuals always strive to realize their interests" is not a social law, since the conditions for their operation are not specified here. At the same time, statements like “a state of anomie, i.e. the moral and psychological state of individual and social consciousness, characterized by the decomposition of the value system, due to the crisis of society, the contradiction between the proclaimed goals (wealth, power) and the impossibility of their implementation, is expressed in the alienation of a person from society, apathy, disappointment, in crime, in an increase in number of suicides" describe the operation of such a social law, where its conditions are quite clearly stipulated.

A person is constantly faced with manifestations of social laws, either obeying them or trying to avoid them (usually unsuccessfully). Describing such a law, the sociologist only fixes by sociological means what a person encounters in his life. Everyday life. But the study of social laws is an extremely difficult task, since the connections and relations in society are contradictory, non-unilinear, subject to change, mutual transitions, they intertwine, overlap each other, complicating the very field of study.

Therefore, when studying social laws, first of all, they pay attention to the specific interests of individuals, social groups, society as a whole and try to identify their recurrence, determine the conditions under which the detected recurrence is observed, and on this basis formulate some conclusions, the knowledge of which will help in managing social processes. Social laws are not created consciously by members of society or groups, as, for example, the laws of law. Usually, people, proceeding from their interests, act unconsciously, intuitively, learning the “correct” behavior in the process of communication itself and interaction with others. The discovered predictability and repeatability of many aspects of human behavior allow scientists who, by studying society, discover social laws, determine the conditions for their action and, accordingly, predict people's behavior in various social situations.

Thus, modern sociology - is a science that studies historically determined social systems, structures, elements and conditions of their existence, as well as social processes, mechanisms of action and forms of their manifestation in the activities of individuals, large and small social groups.

Sociology in the system of social sciences

Sociology is one of the many social sciences that study the life of society, the functioning of social institutions, and human behavior. Although the subject of sociology differs from the subjects of other social sciences, it actively interacts with them, influencing them and experiencing a reciprocal influence. In the system of social and humanitarian disciplines, sociology interacts with almost all other sciences, enriching them with the results of its specific research and exchanging the necessary data. In this process, mutual enrichment occurs, the development of both sociology and the corresponding sciences.

Since the birth of sociology in scientific world discussions began on the interaction of sociology with social philosophy. According to the first point of view, sociology is identified with social philosophy, i.e. sociology is understood as the science of the most general laws of the development of society. However, in this case, the status of concrete, empirical microsociological studies remains unclear.

In accordance with the second point of view, applied (concrete sociological) research is absolutized. Here the situation was complicated by the fact that in the 1960s-1970s. a number of domestic authors came up with a view of sociology as an applied science, the task of which was only to develop practical advice for the management of social processes. Now the situation is changing, but there are still attempts to reduce the functions of sociology to the service of philosophy and other sciences.

The third point of view (the most adequate for describing modern sociology) reflects a more complex picture of the interaction of these sciences: sociology, in addition to general sociological theory, includes both specific sociological research and the study of various social communities.

Economy deals with the study of the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of available resources. Economists study many of the problems that sociologists also face, including economic crises, unemployment, inflation, international trade, etc. Sociology helps economic sciences to analyze the role of the human factor in production, its impact on labor productivity growth, product quality, on the solution of technical, technological , managerial tasks of modern production.

Political spider explores the acquisition, use and distribution of power in society. Political scientists study mainly the activities of governments, political parties, groups connected by common interests, as well as the specifics of the behavior of voters. Sociologists, keeping up with political scientists, and sometimes even ahead of them, are able to quickly respond to any events in society: conducting pilot studies, they can in a short time collect information about the reaction of public consciousness to a particular decision of the government, parliament or president, about the attitude society to the adoption of a new law or the appointment of a new minister, etc. It is no coincidence that a symbiosis of sociology and political science is being created today - the "sociology of politics", or "political sociology", the knowledge of which is becoming an urgent need for a modern specialist.

Sociology can play a significant role in shaping spiritual culture, creating a positive moral atmosphere in society, developing values, moral standards, aesthetic taste, as well as influencing the upbringing of people. Sociology, in particular, is called upon to help Russian society who is in a state of protracted transition, to restore and regain spiritual values, to remind him of the need to preserve a great spiritual culture, religious, moral, aesthetic, and also material values. This is especially significant in conditions when the processes of globalization are "eroding" the cultural and social identity of many peoples of the world.

Relationships in the family, in the team, the state of morality in society can be "volumetrically" assessed only with the help of specific sociological methods. Spiritual culture is the focus of research in such sections of sociology and sociological disciplines as the sociology of culture, the sociology of morality, the sociology of art, the sociology of science, the sociology of education, the sociology of religion, etc.

Legal Sciences also accumulated rich experience in the use of sociological data to improve jurisprudence, in the application of legislative acts, compliance with the rule of law, in the process of forming a legal culture. Without sociology it is difficult to determine the ways of becoming rule of law, civil society, development of democracy, strengthening the rule of law, conflict management. In particular, the specific methods of sociology, combined with the available objective information, make it possible to assess the state and trends in improving Russian legality, statehood, ensuring the rights and freedoms of citizens, and the level of their legal culture. At the intersection of sociology and legal sciences, such a discipline as the sociology of law has arisen and is rapidly developing.

historical science in interaction with sociology enriches the latter with a historical method of research. Therefore, sociologists widely use retrospective analysis in empirical research, which in turn affects historical science in studying the problems of the evolution of social consciousness, equips it with quantitative and other methods. At the intersection of sociology and history, there is a discipline called historical sociology.

V Lately the problems associated with the territorial distribution of human settlements have become aggravated. It is known that ignoring the existing way of life of people, their traditions and inclinations led in Soviet times to such erroneous decisions as, for example, "dispossession" or the elimination of "unpromising" villages. Sociology can provide society with real assistance in studying the patterns of the spatial structure of settlement, population migration, interacting with the social geography.

Russia is a country whose regions are characterized by a variety of natural, cultural, economic and social conditions. Therefore, interest in problems of a regional nature has recently increased, and at the junction of sociology and regiopology a new direction arose - regional sociology.

Close collaboration between sociology and medical sciences in the field of public health research led to the birth and development of such disciplines as social medicine and the sociology of health.

An increasing share in sociology is occupied by a complex of problems intersecting with the sphere of interests ecology. Issues of nature protection, relations between society and the environment cannot be fully assessed without an analysis carried out with the help of sociological research. At the intersection of ecology and sociology, a discipline called social ecology has now been formed, the subject of which is the interaction of society with environment and relationships within society related to nature conservation.

Recently, sociological data empirical research processed by computer software(for example, the SPSS package), for the creation, development and effective use of which special knowledge from the field is actively used mathematical sciences. In modern sociology, sociometric methods are also actively used, which, in order to measure interpersonal relationships combine specific empirical techniques with mathematical data processing algorithms.

In addition to these disciplines, social psychology arose on an interdisciplinary basis, sociolinguistics is developing, sociopedagogy and other related fields of knowledge are at the stage of formation.

Thus, in sociology, the importance of interdisciplinary connections as a stimulus for the development not only of science, but of all modern life. Researchers can achieve their greatest success by building bridges across disciplines. Modern students who want to receive a quality education that is in demand in the future should take into account not only the features of “their own”, but also the latest achievements of “foreign” (and not even necessarily related) disciplines.

Authentication - an authentication procedure, for example: user authentication by comparing the password entered by him with the password in the user database; confirmation of the authenticity of an e-mail by checking the digital signature of the letter using the sender's signature verification key; checking the checksum of a file against the amount declared by the author of this file.

Authorization - granting a certain person or group of persons the rights to perform certain actions; as well as the process of checking (confirming) these rights when trying to perform these actions You can often hear the expression that some person is "authorized" to perform this operation - this means that he has the right to it.

Identification is a procedure, as a result of which, for the subject of identification, its identifier is revealed, which uniquely identifies this subject in information system. To perform the identification procedure in the information system, the subject must first be assigned an appropriate identifier (i.e., the subject has been registered in the information system).

Sciences about society and man.

The sciences that study man and society.

Man: psychology, physiology, hygiene.

Society: sociology, cultural studies, socionics, social science, jurisprudence, ergonomics.

Sociology is the science of society, the systems that make it up, the patterns of its functioning and development, social institutions, relationships and communities. Sociology. Sociology is a discipline whose main object is society itself, studied as a holistic phenomenon.

Culturology is a science that studies culture, the most general patterns of its development. The subject of culturology is the study of the phenomenon of culture as the historical and social experience of people, which is embodied in specific norms, laws and features of their activities, is transmitted from generation to generation in the form of value orientations and ideals.

Socionics is a science that studies the process of information exchange between a person and the outside world.

Social science is the general name of the sciences that study society as a whole and social processes.

Physiology is a science that studies the basic quality of a living thing - its vital activity.

Ethnology. Closely adjacent to anthropology is ethnology, which examines the structure, history and development of ethnic groups. Here the main object of study is not only "primitive societies", but also other public forms created by ethnic groups at different stages of development.

Story. History examines the progressive development of societies, giving a description of the phases of their development, structure, structure, features and characteristics.

Philosophy. Philosophy studies society from the point of view of its essence: structure, ideological foundations, the ratio of spiritual and material factors in it.

Hygiene is a field of science, in particular medicine, which studies the influence of living conditions, work on a person and develops the prevention of various diseases; providing optimal conditions for existence; preserving health and prolonging life.

Jurisprudence is a science whose subject of study is law. Law is inextricably linked with the state, it is a universal regulator of social relations.

Political science. Political science studies society in its political dimension, exploring the development and change of power systems and institutions of society, the transformation of the political system of states, the change of political ideologies.

Culturology. Cultural studies considers society as a cultural phenomenon. In this perspective, social content manifests itself through the culture generated and developed by society. Society in culture studies acts as a subject of culture and at the same time as the field in which cultural creativity unfolds and in which cultural phenomena. Culture, understood in a broad sense, embraces the totality of social values ​​that create a collective portrait of the identity of each particular society.

Jurisprudence. Jurisprudence focuses on public relations in the legal aspect that they acquire, being fixed in legislative acts. Legal systems and institutions reflect the prevailing trends in social development, combine the worldview, political, historical, cultural and value orientations of society. The study of legal norms and laws, as a rule, enshrined in documentary regulations, helps to better understand the structures of societies. It is legal documents that are often preserved from ancient societies, which led to the creation of a common practice historical reconstruction social systems and institutions on the basis of preserved legal and legislative acts.

Economy. Economics studies the economic structure of various societies, explores the impact of economic activity on social institutions, structures and relationships. The Marxist method of political economy makes economic analysis the main tool in the study of society, reducing social studies to clarifying their economic background.